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So Much STI Data: Information to help you stay current and informed – RECORDED WEBINAR

The Arthur E. Schwarting Symposium is an educational conference focused on pharmacy practice for pharmacists in many settings.

This year's symposium had an overall topic of Information Overload.

Learning Objectives

  • Describe updated screening recommendations and epidemiological trends of sexually transmitted infections (STIs).
  • Review the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s STIs recommendations.
  • Explain the latest evidence-based STI updates.
·       Given medication shortages, outline the pharmacist's role in delivering targeted patient education and implementing strategies for responsible medication stewardship for STIs

Activity Release Dates

Released:  April 24, 2025
Expires:  April 24, 2028

Course Fee

$17 Pharmacist

ACPE UAN Codes

 0009-0000-25-030-H01-P

Session Code

25RS30-KVX29

Accreditation Hours

1.0 hours of CE

Accreditation Statement

The University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy is accredited by the Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education as a provider of continuing pharmacy education.

Pharmacists and Pharmacy Technicians are eligible to participate in this application-based activity and will receive 1.0 CE Hour  for completing the activity  (ACPE UAN 0009-0000-25-030-H01-P), passing the quiz with a grade of 70% or better, and completing an online evaluation. Statements of credit are available via the CPE Monitor online system and your participation will be recorded with CPE Monitor within 72 hours of submission.

Grant Funding

There is no grant funding for this activity.

Faculty

Jennifer Girotto, PharmD, BCPPS, BCIDP
Associate Clinical Professor
UConn School of Pharmacy
Storrs, CT

    

Faculty Disclosure

  • Dr. Girotto doesn't have any relationships with ineligible companies.

 

Disclaimer

The material presented here does not necessarily reflect the views of The University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy or its co-sponsor affiliates. These materials may discuss uses and dosages for therapeutic products, processes, procedures and inferred diagnoses that have not been approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration. A qualified health care professional should be consulted before using any therapeutic product discussed. All readers and continuing education participants should verify all information and data before treating patients or employing any therapies described in this continuing education activity.

Content

Post Test Pharmacist

1.) A 19-year-old female is at the clinic. She had recent unprotected sexual intercourse with her partner. She has not had any previous STI screenings. Which STIs are indicated for screening at this time?
a. HIV, gonorrhea, and chlamydia
b. Gonorrhea, chlamydia, and syphilis
c. Chlamydia, syphilis, and HPV

2.) Which of the following STIs have shown a continued increase in incidence based on 2023 data?
a. Congenital syphilis
b. Gonorrhea in the population
c. Chlamydia cases in men

3.) After completing gonorrhea treatment, when should a clinician re-screen the patient?
a. 1 month after completing treatment
b. 3 months after completing treatment
c. 1 year after completing treatment

4.) What is the guideline-based treatment recommendation for a 200 lb male patient with a confirmed gonorrhea and chlamydia co-infection?
a. Ceftriaxone 500 mg IM x 1 and azithromycin 1000 mg PO x 1
b. Ceftriaxone 250 mg IM x 1 and doxycycline 100 mg PO BID x 7 days
c. Ceftriaxone 500 mg IM x 1 and doxycycline 100 mg PO BID x 7 days

5.) Which population should receive seven days of treatment with metronidazole for trichomoniasis?
a. Young males 15 – 24 years old
b. Males 25 – 45 years old
c. Females of any age

6.) A pregnant patient is positive for primary syphilis. What is the guideline recommended treatment for her?
a. 2.4 million units benzathine penicillin G IM x 1
b. 2.4 million units benzathine penicillin G IM x 3 weekly doses
c. 100 mg PO doxycycline 2 time daily doses for 28 days
7.) Which of the following is a newly approved type of product that will increase patient access?
a. OTC bacterial Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis
b. OTC home screening tests for STIs
c. OTC HIV Post Exposure Prophylaxis

8.) What should pharmacists warn healthcare providers about regarding possible alternatives during a shortage of Bicillin LA for syphilis?
a. Impact of HIV cases
b. Adverse effects from the frequent use of the medication
c. Antimicrobial resistance

9.) You are working with emergency department physicians to manage a shortage of ceftriaxone. One concern is the treatment of gonorrhea. Which of the following would be a stewardship principle applied to this STI management choice?
a. Use the most recent antibiotic approved for the indication
b. Use alternative based on narrowest effect spectrum and incorporating local resistance data, if known
c. Choose an alternative that will also cover other STIs just in case

Patient Safety: Anticoagulation Stewardship: Identifying Key Data, Avoiding Errors, and Enhancing Safety – RECORDED WEBINAR

The Arthur E. Schwarting Symposium is an educational conference focused on pharmacy practice for pharmacists in many settings.

This year's sympoisum had an overall topic of information overload.

Learning Objectives

Differentiate high-priority, practice-changing information from less relevant or conflicting data after reviewing the anticoagulation guidelines, literature and clinical updates.
Recognize common anticoagulation-related errors in pharmacy practice and implement strategies to minimize patient safety risks
Identify red flag situations in anticoagulation management that pose patient safety risks.
Determine the appropriate guidelines or evidence-based resources to guide clinical decision-making and referrals

Activity Release Dates

Released:  April 24, 2025
Expires:  April 24, 2028

Course Fee

$17 Pharmacist

ACPE UAN Codes

0009-0000-25-029-H05-P

Session Code

25RS29-CBA96

Accreditation Hours

1.0 hours of CE

Accreditation Statement

The University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy is accredited by the Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education as a provider of continuing pharmacy education.

Pharmacists and Pharmacy Technicians are eligible to participate in this application-based activity and will receive 1.0 CE Hour  for completing the activity  (ACPE UAN 0009-0000-25-029-H05-P), passing the quiz with a grade of 70% or better, and completing an online evaluation. Statements of credit are available via the CPE Monitor online system and your participation will be recorded with CPE Monitor within 72 hours of submission.

Grant Funding

There is no grant funding for this activity.

Faculty

 Youseff Besada, PharmD, BCPS, BCPP
Assistant Clinical Professor
UConn School of Pharmacy
Storrs, CT

Faculty Disclosure

  • Youssef Bessada doesn't have any relationships with ineligible companies.

 

Disclaimer

The material presented here does not necessarily reflect the views of The University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy or its co-sponsor affiliates. These materials may discuss uses and dosages for therapeutic products, processes, procedures and inferred diagnoses that have not been approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration. A qualified health care professional should be consulted before using any therapeutic product discussed. All readers and continuing education participants should verify all information and data before treating patients or employing any therapies described in this continuing education activity.

Content

Post Test Pharmacist

1. Which of the following BEST represents a high-priority takeaway from current guideline recommendations for DOAC use in atrial fibrillation?
a) DOACs are preferred over warfarin in all patients with AF
b) Apixaban is the only DOAC that does not require renal dosing adjustments
c) DOACs should not be used in patients with mechanical heart valves

2. A 68-year-old male with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation (weight 60 kg, age 78) and SCr 1.4 mg/dL is started on apixaban. Which of the following would be considered a dosing error?
a) apixaban 5 mg BID
b) apixaban 2.5 mg BID
c) warfarin with a target INR of 2–3

3. A 55-year-old female patient with atrial fibrillation (weight 75 kg, SCr 1.6 mg/dL) and recent MI has been taking apixaban 5 mg BID, clopidogrel 75 mg daily, aspirin 81 mg daily, and pantoprazole 40 mg for the past 7 months. Which of the following should be considered a red flag that would prompt pharmacist stewardship at this point?
a) Use of aspirin in combination with DAPT
b) Use of clopidogrel in a patient with CAD
c) Use of apixaban for stroke prevention at the incorrect dose

4. You are managing a patient with cirrhosis (Child-Pugh Class B) who requires anticoagulation for VTE. Which of the following is the most appropriate course of action?
a) Prescribe rivaroxaban using its complete prescribing information recommendation
b) Refer to hepatology/hematology to discuss bleeding risk and treatment alternatives
c) Use warfarin because it’s always the safest anticoagulant in liver disease

5. A patient newly started on warfarin reports they “just stopped eating leafy greens” to be safe. What is the best pharmacist action?
a) Encourage the patient to continue avoiding all vitamin K-containing foods
b) Educate that consistent vitamin K intake is more important than avoiding it
c) Schedule weekly INR checks and adjust the warfarin dose aggressively

Information overload in Chronic Coronary Disease – RECORDED WEBINAR

The Arthur E. Schwarting Symposium is an educational conference focused on pharmacy practice for pharmacists in many settings.

This year's symposium had an overall topic of Information Overload.

Learning Objectives

  • Determine if a patient has chronic cardiac disease (CCD).
  • Identify lifestyle modifications that can reduce the risk of CCD.
  • Identify therapies that can reduce final health outcomes for specific CCD patient types to design successful drug regimens.
  • Describe how the steps in the PPCP process can be applied when reviewing a cardiac patient.

Activity Release Dates

Released:  April 24, 2025
Expires:  April 24, 2028

Course Fee

$17 Pharmacist

ACPE UAN Codes

 0009-0000-25-028-H01-P

Session Code

25RS28-TXJ88

Accreditation Hours

1.0 hours of CE

Accreditation Statement

The University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy is accredited by the Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education as a provider of continuing pharmacy education.

Pharmacists and Pharmacy Technicians are eligible to participate in this application-based activity and will receive 1.0 CE Hour  for completing the activity  (ACPE UAN 0009-0000-25-028-H01-P), passing the quiz with a grade of 70% or better, and completing an online evaluation. Statements of credit are available via the CPE Monitor online system and your participation will be recorded with CPE Monitor within 72 hours of submission.

Grant Funding

There is no grant funding for this activity.

Faculty

C. Michael White, PharmD, FCCP, FCP
BOT Distinguished Professor and Chair of Pharmacy Practice
University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy
Storrs, CT

    

Faculty Disclosure

  • Dr. White doesn't have any relationships with ineligible companies.

 

Disclaimer

The material presented here does not necessarily reflect the views of The University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy or its co-sponsor affiliates. These materials may discuss uses and dosages for therapeutic products, processes, procedures and inferred diagnoses that have not been approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration. A qualified health care professional should be consulted before using any therapeutic product discussed. All readers and continuing education participants should verify all information and data before treating patients or employing any therapies described in this continuing education activity.

Content

Post Test Pharmacist

1. A female patient is interested in lifestyle modification. Which of the following would you recommend?
a. Switch from EVOO to coconut oil
b. Switch from smoking weed to “doing” crystal methamphetamine
c. Limit alcohol to a maximum of 1 drink a day

2. A patient with CCD is determined to have “high risk” of experiencing an ASCVD event. The patient cannot receive high- or even moderate-intensity statins due to a history of significant rises in liver enzymes 8-10 weeks after initiation on two occasions. Which is true of the patient’s recommended lipid regimen?
a. The patient needs high-intensity statin regardless of the liver issues and ezetimibe should be added if the LDL on the statin is over 70mg/dL
b. The patient could receive a low intensity statin + a PCSK9 inhibitor and if the LDL remains over 70mg/dL, ezetimibe can be added
c. The patient could receive a PCSK9 inhibitor and if the LDL remains over 70mg/dL, ezetimibe can be added

3. Why can’t metoprolol tartrate be used to terminate a new onset angina pectoris event?
a. Because the onset of action is 30 minutes, and the maximum effect is felt 2 hours after ingestion
b. Because I am a pharmacist and I said so, that’s why
c. Because metoprolol does not work on the coronary arteries and only coronary dilators can be used for acute angina pectoris events

4. A student is explaining the PPCP process to you. Which of the following statements would you question and ask the student to research?
a. The PPCP process helps structure an assessment to be sure that important drug related problems are all included
b. Major pharmacy organizations agreed upon this process to show regulators, clinicians, patients, payers and insurers our unique patient services
c. “PPCP” is an old term; major professional organizations have replaced it with the subjective-objective-assessment-plan process

5. When would it be useful to recommend nitroglycerin spray instead of sublingual nitroglycerin?
a. In a patient taking an anticholinergic
b. In a patient taking an SSRI
c. In a patient taking benzodiazepines

6. JP is a patient who has rheumatoid arthritis and chronic coronary disease. He has an hsCRP test taken and the level is 7.2 mg/dL. Would this patient be a candidate for colchicine therapy according to the AHA/ACC Guideline and why or why not?
a. Yes, colchicine should be used in all people with elevated hsCRP
b. Yes, colchicine should be used in all patients regardless of hsCRP
c. No, specific disease modifying antirheumatic drug are used in patients with RA

7. AT is a patient with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction, who also has chronic coronary disease. Would an SGLT2 inhibitor or a GLP-1 agonist be preferred for the treatment of this patient?
a. Neither drug should be used at all
b. The SGLT-2 inhibitor would be preferred
c. The GLP-1 agonist would be preferred

8. WC is a patient who just had a PCI procedure but also has atrial fibrillation and is treated with rivaroxaban. What is the proper regimen to prevent stent occlusion?
a. Clopidogrel + aspirin + rivaroxaban for one month, then clopidogrel + rivaroxaban for 5 months, then just rivaroxaban alone thereafter
b. Clopidogrel + aspirin + rivaroxaban for six months, then clopidogrel + rivaroxaban for 6 months, then just rivaroxaban alone thereafter
c. Clopidogrel + aspirin + rivaroxaban for 12 months, then rivaroxaban + clopidogrel then rivaroxaban for 6 months, then rivaroxaban alone

Information overload to action: Decoding academic concepts for pharmacy preceptors- RECORDED WEBINAR

The Arthur E. Schwarting Symposium is an educational conference focused on pharmacy practice for pharmacists in many settings.

This year's symposium had an overall topic of Information Overload.

Learning Objectives

  • Discuss how ACPE standards, the NAPLEX blueprint, and Entrustable Professional Activities (EPAs) guide the development of clinical competence in students, specifically in the context of patient care.
  • Describe the Pharmacist Patient Care Process (PPCP) and its key components.
  • Explain how the PPCP framework is applied in experiential education and clinical rotations.

Activity Release Dates

Released:  April 24, 2025
Expires:  April 24, 2028

Course Fee

$17 Pharmacist

ACPE UAN Codes

 0009-0000-25-026-H04-P

Session Code

25RS26-ABC28

Accreditation Hours

1.0 hours of CE

Accreditation Statement

The University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy is accredited by the Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education as a provider of continuing pharmacy education.

Pharmacists and Pharmacy Technicians are eligible to participate in this application-based activity and will receive 1.0 CE Hour  for completing the activity  (ACPE UAN 0009-0000-25-026-H04-P), passing the quiz with a grade of 70% or better, and completing an online evaluation. Statements of credit are available via the CPE Monitor online system and your participation will be recorded with CPE Monitor within 72 hours of submission.

Grant Funding

There is no grant funding for this activity.

Faculty

Jennifer Luciano, PharmD
Director Office of Experiential Education
University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy
Storrs, CT

    

Faculty Disclosure

  • Dr. Luciano doesn't have any relationships with ineligible companies.

 

Disclaimer

The material presented here does not necessarily reflect the views of The University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy or its co-sponsor affiliates. These materials may discuss uses and dosages for therapeutic products, processes, procedures and inferred diagnoses that have not been approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration. A qualified health care professional should be consulted before using any therapeutic product discussed. All readers and continuing education participants should verify all information and data before treating patients or employing any therapies described in this continuing education activity.

Content

Post Test Pharmacist

1. Joey is an IPPE student under your supervision this month. He observes as you meet with a patient who has a question about various options to treat psoriasis. You tell the patient you will get back to him about medications covered by his plan, out of pocket costs, the time burden associated with treatment, and potential adverse effects. Joey wants to help. What can Joey do?
A. Collect information, asking for help if or when he needs it
B. Observe how you collect information but assess independently
C. Collect information only under direct and proactive supervision

2. Phoebe is an APPE student in her first clinical rotation. She aspires to obtain an industry fellowship and hopes to receive the best grade possible on this rotation with the least work. She says, "I don't plan to work in a clinical position, so this is not a priority for me. What is the BEST answer?
A. The PPCP is not just applicable to clinical situations. It structures processes for all kinds of projects, not just clinical challenges.
B. Most students who aspire to work in industry do not get fellowships, and you need to know the PPCP if you land in an actual pharmacy.
C. Say nothing. Allow Phoebe to do minimal work.

3. Rachel is on her last APPE rotation before graduation. YAY! She works up a patient who has a cardiac issue. She collects a lot of appropriate information, and her assessment is almost perfect. She makes one statement that seems "off" to you. She recommends using a medication that is no longer first-line treatment. What is the MOST LIKELY cause for her omission?
A. She relied on only one guideline for evidence
B. She collects too much information and is confused
C. She is hyper-focused on cost, not effectiveness

4. Joey is now an APPE student on a general medicine rotation. You assign him a patient to review for your discussion this afternoon. When Joey joins you, he provides background information on the patient, reports on the physical notes, pertinent laboratory values and his conversation with the patient. What step of the Pharmacist Patient Care Process is Joey demonstrating?
A. Collect
B. Assess
C. Plan

5. Ross, an APPE student on your ambulatory care rotation, is writing up a SMART goal for his patient with diabetes. The goal reads “Reduce the patient’s blood glucose within six months. Patient will start metformin XL 500mg PO daily and follow up with the pharmacy team for titration every seven days. Reduction in the patient’s A1c will lead to better health outcomes and reduce the severity of complications from his diabetes.” What part of the SMART goal is Ross missing?
A. Specific
B. Measurable
C. Realistic

6. What is the performance goal for a “practice ready” APPE student in terms of level of entrustability on each of the entrustable professional activities (EPAs)?
A. Direct supervision
B. Reactive supervision
C. General Direction

Law: Understanding Disabled Pharmacy Patients’ Right to Nondiscrimination-RECORDED WEBINAR

The Arthur E. Schwarting Symposium is an educational conference focused on pharmacy practice for pharmacists in many settings.

This year's symposium had an overall topic of Information Overload.

Learning Objectives

  • Describe the federal and state laws that protect patients with disabilities
  • Recognize situations in which accommodations should be provided to disabled patients
  • Recall examples of common modifications for patients with disabilities

Activity Release Dates

Released:  April 24, 2025
Expires:  April 24, 2028

Course Fee

$17 Pharmacist

ACPE UAN Codes

 0009-0000-25-027-H03-P

Session Code

25RS27-VXK92

Accreditation Hours

1.0 hours of CE

Accreditation Statement

The University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy is accredited by the Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education as a provider of continuing pharmacy education.

Pharmacists and Pharmacy Technicians are eligible to participate in this application-based activity and will receive 1.0 CE Hour  for completing the activity  (ACPE UAN 0009-0000-25-027-H03-P), passing the quiz with a grade of 70% or better, and completing an online evaluation. Statements of credit are available via the CPE Monitor online system and your participation will be recorded with CPE Monitor within 72 hours of submission.

Grant Funding

There is no grant funding for this activity.

Faculty

Caroline Wick, JD, MSPH, BA
Practitioner-in-Residence and Acting Director of the Disability Rights Law Clinic
American University Washington College of Law
Washington DC

    

Faculty Disclosure

  • Caroline Wick doesn't have any relationships with ineligible companies.

 

Disclaimer

The material presented here does not necessarily reflect the views of The University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy or its co-sponsor affiliates. These materials may discuss uses and dosages for therapeutic products, processes, procedures and inferred diagnoses that have not been approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration. A qualified health care professional should be consulted before using any therapeutic product discussed. All readers and continuing education participants should verify all information and data before treating patients or employing any therapies described in this continuing education activity.

Content

Post Test Pharmacist

1. What was Congress’ purpose when it wrote the definition of “individual with a disability”:
A. To make it easier for people with disabilities to be covered by federal law
B. To restrict coverage to people with certain medical diagnoses
C. To only cover people with physical impairments

2. When may a pharmacist refuse to administer the flu shot to a person with HIV?
A. If the patient is in a rehabilitation program for using illegal drugs.
B. If the patient hasn’t made an appointment ahead of time and all patients must make appointments ahead of time.
C. If special gloves are not available for administering shots to people with communicable diseases.

3. A patient enters the pharmacy with a dog, and you are not sure if it’s a service animal or not. Which of the following questions may you ask the patient?
A. What is the nature and extent of your disability?
B. Do you need the dog to be present because of a physical, sensory, psychiatric, intellectual or other mental disability?
C. Is the dog required because of a disability?

4. A patient enters the pharmacy with a dog. When you ask what tasks the dog has been trained to perform, the patient says that it is a comfort animal and has undergone no training. Can you ask the patient to leave and come back without the comfort animal?
A. No, because comfort animals are considered service animals under federal law.
B. Yes, because comfort animals are not protected by federal law.
C. No, because that would be discrimination.

5. A patient enters the pharmacy with a bulldog. When you ask if the patient needs the bulldog because of a disability, the patient says yes. Can you exclude the bulldog?
A. No, because a service animal cannot be excluded based solely on its breed.
B. Yes, because bulldogs are known to be aggressive.
C. Yes, because the patient has not disclosed their specific disability in response to your question.

6. If a patient enters the pharmacy using a mobility device, a pharmacist is permitted to inquire about which of the following?

A. The nature and extent of the patient’s disability.
B. What paperwork the patient has with them to prove that the mobility device has been serviced recently.
C. Whether the mobility device is needed because of the patient’s disability.

THYROID DISEASE: The Basics and the Latest

Learning Objectives

 

After completing this application-based continuing education activity, pharmacists will be able to

  1. Discuss Thyroid Disease and the typical medications used to treat it
  2. Explain drug-induced hypo/hyperthyroidism, drug interactions, and proper administration of thyroid medications
  3. Explain the lab work and the frequency of monitoring needed for patients treated with levothyroxine
  4. Differentiate hypothyroid disease from subclinical hypothyroid disease and their respective treatment approaches

After completing this application-based continuing education activity, pharmacy technicians will be able to

  1. Recall and list the common symptoms of thyroid disease
  2. Identify typical medications used to treat thyroid disease
  3. Recognize when to refer patients to the pharmacist for further consultation

Release Date:

Release Date: May 20, 2025

Expiration Date: May 20, 2028

Course Fee

Pharmacist:  $5

Pharmacy Technician: $2

ACPE UANs

Pharmacist: 0009-0000-25-034-H01-P

Pharmacy Technician: 0009-0000-25-034-H01-T

Session Codes

Pharmacist: 22YC25-XYZ35

Pharmacy Technician: 22YC25-FXT27

Accreditation Hours

2.0 hours of CE

Accreditation Statements

The University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy is accredited by the Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education as a provider of continuing pharmacy education.  Statements of credit for the online activity ACPE UAN 0009-0000-25-034-H01-P/T  will be awarded when the post test and evaluation have been completed and passed with a 70% or better. Your CE credits will be uploaded to your CPE monitor profile within 2 weeks of completion of the program.

 

Disclosure of Discussions of Off-label and Investigational Drug Use

The material presented here does not necessarily reflect the views of The University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy or its co-sponsor affiliates. These materials may discuss uses and dosages for therapeutic products, processes, procedures and inferred diagnoses that have not been approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration. A qualified health care professional should be consulted before using any therapeutic product discussed. All readers and continuing education participants should verify all information and data before treating patients or employing any therapies described in this continuing education activity.

Faculty

Kathryn M. Colucci, RPh
Medical Writer
Newtown, CT

Faculty Disclosure

In accordance with the Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education (ACPE) Criteria for Quality and Interpretive Guidelines, The University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy requires that faculty disclose any relationship that the faculty may have with commercial entities whose products or services may be mentioned in the activity.

Kathryn Colucci, RPh has no relationship with an ineligible company and therefore has nothing to disclose.

ABSTRACT

Thyroid hormones, produced by the tiny thyroid gland, influence almost every organ in the body. They control the body’s energy production and metabolic rate; imbalances can have profound health consequences. Thyroid disease is classified as hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism. In the United States, an estimated 20 million people have thyroid disease. Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, an autoimmune disease resulting in hypothyroidism, accounts for most thyroid disease in the U.S. Prescribers treat it with levothyroxine, which is among the most frequently dispensed medications. Many patients have subclinical hypothyroidism and the decision to treat with levothyroxine is based on a patient’s individual circumstances. Hyperthyroid disorders are less common, and most cases are Graves’ disease, an autoimmune disorder. The 2020 approval of teprotumumab marked a major advancement in the treatment of thyroid eye disease. Pharmacologic treatment of thyroid disease is largely safe and effective with proper management. A knowledgeable pharmacy team can have a positive impact on patient care.

CONTENT

Content

INTRODUCTION

Did the Mona Lisa have hypothyroidism? Discussions around the Mona Lisa’s enigmatic smile have fascinated art lovers for centuries but now some endocrinologists have started a new line of debate. They describe telltale signs, like swollen hands, thinning hair, and a lump in the neck, that point to the famous Mona Lisa exhibiting hypothyroidism. They even suggest that the disease contributed to her mysterious smile. Amusing! When you view the painting do you see the same signs?

 

Theodor Kocher, a Swiss physician who was award the Nobel Prize in 1909 for his work on the thyroid gland, described the first case of hypothyroidism in the mid-19th century.1 Effective treatment emerged about 100 years ago, so if the 16th century Mona Lisa had hypothyroidism, she might have suffered without knowing the cause. Patients with undiagnosed or inadequately treated hypothyroidism are at risk for cardiovascular problems, osteoporosis, and infertility.2

 

The thyroid gland’s main hormones are responsible for controlling the body’s energy production and metabolic rate and they affect nearly every organ system in the body. Having too little or too much of these hormones can have profound consequences on health.

 

Millions of Americans are affected by thyroid disease with most cases classified as hypothyroidism or underactive thyroid. Children, whose cognitive and physical development depends on normal thyroid function, can also be affected.3 Levothyroxine is used to treat hypothyroidism and is consistently among the most frequently prescribed medications in the United States (U.S.).4 Although less common, hyperthyroid disease is a serious endocrine disorder with profound health consequences if not properly treated.

 

THYROID GLAND AND FUNCTION

The thyroid gland is a small bow tie shaped endocrine gland that sits at the base of the neck. It produces two main hormones: tetraiodothyronine called thyroxine (T4), and triiodothyronine (T3). T4 and T3 control energy production and metabolic rate and influence nearly every organ system in the body including the brain, bowels, and skin. They regulate protein, carbohydrate, and fat metabolism by stimulating protein production and increasing oxygen needs at the cellular level. They are essential for proper fetal and neonatal development. Thyroid hormones influence body temperature, heart rate, appetite, mood, and digestion.2

 

Iodine is a constituent of T4 and T3 and sufficient dietary intake of iodine and its adequate uptake by the thyroid gland is necessary for proper thyroid function. The thyroid gland produces mostly inactive hormone in the form of thyroxine, called T4 because it has four iodine atoms. T4 is highly protein bound for transport to the liver where it undergoes deiodination (the removal of one iodine atom) resulting in T3. T3, like T4, is highly protein bound and must be released from its binding protein to be active. Equilibrium is maintained between bound and free T3; as the body demands more biologically active hormone more T3 is released from the binding protein. Free T3 is the main biologically active form of thyroid hormone.2

 

Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Thyroid Axis

The hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis governs thyroid hormone production by regulating the synthesis and secretion of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), also called thyrotropin. The hypothalamus is the part of the brain responsible for monitoring thyroid hormone levels in the body. When the hypothalamus detects low levels of thyroid hormone in the body, it releases a hormone called thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH). TRH stimulates the pituitary gland, the small pea-size gland sitting at the base of the brain, to secrete TSH. TSH, in turn, instructs the thyroid gland to produce more T4 and T3. High levels of T4 in the body inhibit TSH secretion while low levels of T4 stimulate TSH secretion. Disease affecting any part of the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis can result in thyroid hormone imbalances and disease.2

 

THYROID DISEASE AND ETIOLOGY

Thyroid disease is an endocrine disorder. Primary thyroid disease refers to disease of the thyroid gland. Secondary thyroid disease is far less common and refers to disease affecting the hypothalamus or pituitary gland resulting in thyroid dysfunction. Thyroid disease is classified as either hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism.

 

Hypothyroid Disease

Hypothyroid disease occurs when inadequate thyroid hormone is available to the body. It is often referred to as an underactive thyroid and it is the most common form of thyroid disease. Hypothyroid disorders are categorized as either primary hypothyroidism or secondary hypothyroidism. The vast majority of cases are primary hypothyroidism.2

 

Hashimoto’s Thyroiditis

Hashimoto’s thyroiditis (HT) is the most common cause of primary hypothyroidism in the U.S. Japanese physician Hakaru Hashimoto first described the disease in 1912. It wasn’t until decades later that it was recognized as an autoimmune disorder and it is now considered the most prevalent autoimmune disease.5 Many patients do not realize that their hypothyroid condition is caused by this autoimmune disorder.

 

HT is characterized by infiltration and destruction of thyroid cells by leukocytes (white blood cells). A chronic autoimmune inflammation ensues resulting in atrophy and fibrosis of the thyroid gland that leads to hypothyroidism. Circulating thyroid autoantibodies, anti-thyroperoxidase antibody (anti-TPO Ab), and anti-thyroglobulin antibody (anti-Tg Ab) can be detected but clinicians usually don’t measure them since all treatment of hypothyroidism is similar.6

 

Women are more likely to develop HT and often have a family history, implicating a genetic component. The presence of other autoimmune disorders is common and prevalence is higher among those with chromosomal disorders like Down syndrome.2

 

Patients may present with thyroiditis (inflammation of the thyroid gland) and symptoms of hypothyroidism, like weight gain and fatigue, but not always. Symptoms can develop gradually and go unnoticed. Laboratory assessment of thyroid function (discussed below) confirms the diagnosis. Individuals diagnosed with HT require lifelong treatment with the thyroid replacement hormone levothyroxine.6

 

HT’s complications can manifest particularly in untreated or undertreated individuals including2:

  • Lipid disorders (elevated total cholesterol, LDL, and triglycerides)
  • Anemia
  • Menstrual abnormalities
  • Infertility
  • Hyponatremia
  • Thyroid associated orbitopathy
  • Increased risk for papillary thyroid carcinoma

 

Lipid disorders are of particular concern because they can contribute to coronary artery disease. Anemia is observed in 30% to 40% of patients. Recent research has suggested greater risk for recurrent pregnancy loss in patients with HT and an additional autoimmune disorder, but more research is needed to fully understand the link.7

 

Most complications of HT are rare but prescribers must monitor and treat complications as they arise to optimize patient management.8

 

Researchers have also noted vitamin D deficiency in HT. A randomized, double blind, clinical trial observed that supplementation with vitamin D reduced circulating thyroid autoantibodies.5 The researchers suggest a possible role for vitamin D in the alleviation of disease activity but acknowledge the need for further studies before introducing this intervention to clinical practice. Despite the need for additional research, treating vitamin D deficiency in patients with HT may be warranted.

 

Gut microbiota are considered intrinsic regulators of thyroid autoimmunity. Scientists have studied the composition of the microbiota in patients with thyroid autoimmunity and have found it to be altered in HT.9 Clinical implications of this research are not fully understood, but further research may determine the role these findings may have in HT management.

 

With early diagnosis, prompt treatment, proper follow-up care, and attention to associated complications, HT’s prognosis is excellent, and patients lead a normal life.10

 

Iodine Deficiency Hypothyroidism

Although uncommon in America, iodine deficiency is the leading cause of hypothyroidism worldwide. Adequate iodine intake is necessary for the thyroid gland to function properly, and it is critical for normal fetal and neonatal development. The recommended daily allowance (RDA) for adults is 150 mcg and it increases to 250 mcg in pregnancy and to 290 mcg during lactation. Goiter (an abnormal enlargement of the thyroid gland) is common as the thyroid gland enlarges in an attempt to sequester iodine to make thyroid hormone.11,63

 

Universal salt iodization programs have dramatically reduced iodine deficiency-related thyroid disease.12 Historically, iodine deficient areas in the U.S. included the mountainous regions and the so called “goiter belt” around the Great Lakes. Most Americans now consume adequate amounts of iodine in their diets by using iodized salt and by eating dairy products, eggs, and seafood. However, certain populations may still be at risk, including vegans, pregnant women, and people who don’t use iodized salt.11 Most alternative milk products are low in iodine and processed foods like canned soup and specialty salts–including kosher, Himalayan, and sea salt–rarely provide iodine.13 Healthcare practitioners must be aware of iodine deficiency’s consequences, especially during pregnancy.11,63

 

Thyroid diets have gained interest among patients and circulate widely on the Internet. These diets promote avoiding particular foods to achieve optimal thyroid function. Certain foods including broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, and soy contain goitrogens, which are substances that interfere with iodine uptake by the thyroid. For most people in the U.S. who consume adequate amounts of iodine, eating foods containing goitrogens is not a concern. People with iodine deficiency who eat an abundance of these foods may have trouble consuming enough iodine.13,63

 

Thyroidectomy and Cancer Treatment Resulting in Hypothyroidism

Thyroidectomy, the surgical removal of the thyroid gland, is sometimes indicated in cancer treatment and in some cases of hyperthyroidism. Thyroidectomy results in hypothyroidism and patients require life-long thyroid hormone replacement with levothyroxine.14

 

Most thyroid cancers respond well to treatment, but a small percentage can be very aggressive. Treatment of thyroid cancer often results in hypothyroidism and patients require lifelong treatment with thyroid replacement hormone.14

 

Medication-Induced Hypothyroidism

The pharmacy team must be aware that certain medications can affect thyroid function. Table 1 lists common medications that can cause hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism. The medications that cause hypothyroidism decrease synthesis of T4/T3, inhibit T4/T3 secretion, and/or cause thyroiditis.15

 

Table 1. Medications that May Lead to Thyroid Dysfunction

 

Drug class/medications  Hypothyroidism Hyperthyroidism
Antidysrhythmic:

 

 Amiodarone X X
Bipolar Disorder Medication:

 

 Lithium X X
Thyroid Medications:

 

 PTU X
 Methimazole X
 Radioactive Iodine X
Cancer Medications:

 

 Biological response modifiers:
 Interferon X
 Interleukin-2 X
 Tyrosine kinase inhibitors:
   Sunitinib X
   Sorafenib X
 Checkpoint inhibitors:
   Nivolumab X X
   Pembrolizumab X X
   Ipilimumab X X
Multiple Sclerosis Medication:

 

   Alemtuzumab X

 

Medications that cause thyroid disorders are important treatments and, in most cases, they cannot be discontinued; any drug-induced hypothyroidism requires levothyroxine.

 

Amiodarone structurally resembles thyroid hormone and is often implicated in thyroid dysfunction, mostly hypothyroidism.16 It is comprised of 37% iodine, so a 200 mg dose provides 75 mg of organic iodide, which is 100 times more than required. Researchers estimate thyroid abnormalities occur in 14% to 18% of patients taking long-term amiodarone but a meta-analysis found that with low doses, the incidence is lower (3.7%).17 Lithium can inhibit thyroid hormone release resulting in hypothyroidism; it usually occurs in younger women within the first two years of therapy. Antineoplastic agents may cause thyroid dysfunction in 20% to 50% of patients.18 Pharmacists must educate patients about the need for routine thyroid function assessment when receiving these medications.

 

Hyperthyroid Disease

Hyperthyroidism is characterized by excessive metabolism and secretion of thyroid hormones. It is less common than hypothyroid disease. Graves’ disease, thyroiditis, multi-nodular goiter, and toxic nodular goiter (benign growths on the thyroid gland that produce thyroid hormone in excess) can also cause hyperthyroid disease. Ingestion of too much external thyroid hormone is another possible cause of hyperthyroidism.19

 

Graves’ Disease

Graves’ disease (GD) accounts for most cases of hyperthyroidism. GD is an autoimmune disorder caused by a stimulatory autoantibody against the thyroid receptor for TSH. Most autoantibodies are inhibitory; in GD, the autoantibody is stimulatory. Overstimulation of the thyroid gland results in the overproduction of T4 and T3 leading to hyperthyroidism.12

 

Graves’ disease, like HT, appears to have a genetic link and is often comorbid with other autoimmune disorders. Risk factors for GD include smoking and iodine deficiency. In the case of iodine deficiency, multifocal autonomous growth of the thyroid gland can occur and result in thyrotoxicosis (excess levels of thyroid hormone in the body).20 Women are affected at a higher rate and children can also be affected. GD’s clinical presentation may be dramatic or subtle and goiter may or may not be present. Laboratory assessment of thyroid function is used to help diagnose GD.

 

Researchers have studied the composition of gut microbiota in patients with GD and similar to findings in HT, have found it to be altered. The researchers suggest the findings from this randomized controlled trial may offer an alternative noninvasive diagnostic methodology for GD.21 Further research is needed to elucidate the role microbiota may play in thyroid autoimmunity.

 

Thyroid Eye Disease

Thyroid eye disease is a progressive, potentially sight threatening ocular disease that is reported in almost half of patients who have GD. It arises from a separate autoimmune process involving autoantibodies that activate an insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor (IGF-1R) mediated signaling complex on cells within the eye orbit. The most common clinical feature is proptosis (bulging eyes) with edema and erythema of the surrounding eye tissue, but patients may also experience a skin manifestation called thyroid dermopathy (a nodular diffuse thickening of the skin on the legs). Patients with thyroid eye disease often complain of dry and gritty ocular sensation, photophobia, excessive tearing, double vision, and pressure sensation behind the eyes. Severe disease occurs in 3% to 5% of patients causing intense eye pain and inflammation, and threatening sight.22

 

Recently, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the monoclonal antibody teprotumumab for treatment of adults with thyroid eye disease, marking a significant advancement in treatment. Prior to this approval, treatment options only included steroids or surgery.23

 

Medication Induced Hyperthyroidism

Like medication that can cause hypothyroidism, some medication can cause hyperthyroidism. The pharmacy team must be knowledgeable of the medications that can cause hyperthyroidism that warrant close monitoring of thyroid function (See Table 1). Patients should understand the importance of routine thyroid function assessment when taking medications that can affect thyroid function.

 

Amiodarone-associated hyperthyroidism is less common than amiodarone-associated hypothyroidism; still, it is estimated to occur in 3% of patients. Onset of amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis (elevated levels of free thyroid hormone) can be sudden and require rapid assessment and treatment.16 Pharmacists must educate their patients about the symptoms of hyperthyroidism and instruct them to report them immediately if encountered.

 

PAUSE AND PONDER: How many of your patients take medications that might cause thyroid dysfunction? Why is it important to tell these patients that some of their medications might influence the thyroid gland?

 

PREVALENCE

As many as 20 million Americans are affected by thyroid disease. Clinicians diagnose hypothyroidism in nearly five of 100 Americans aged 12 years and older.24 Thyroid disease affects men, women, and children. Women are disproportionately affected at a 10 to 15 times higher rate, and it’s estimated one in eight women will develop some form of thyroid disease in their lifetime.24

 

HT is most often diagnosed between the ages of 40 to 60 years. Prevalence increases with age.8 Twenty percent of adults older than 75, most of them women, have insufficient levels of thyroid hormone.24 The Colorado Thyroid Disease Prevalence Study, a cross-sectional study conducted more than 20 years ago, reported the prevalence of hypothyroid disease in symptomatic and asymptomatic adults at 9.5%.25 In people not taking thyroid hormone, prevalence was 8.5% and 0.4% for subclinical and overt disease, respectively.10

 

Hyperthyroidism is much less common than hypothyroidism. Prevalence of hyperthyroidism in the U.S. is estimated at 1.3%. GD is the most common cause of hyperthyroidism followed by toxic nodular goiter. GD is estimated to affect 1% of the population, mainly women of childbearing age. Incidence increases with age, and it is observed more frequently in Caucasians compared to other races. Mild hyperthyroidism occurs at a higher rate in iodine deficient geographic areas.12

 

SYMPTOMS

Because thyroid hormones affect nearly every organ system in the body thyroid disease’s symptoms are wide ranging and numerous. Symptoms vary depending on the type of thyroid disease and patients may experience few or many symptoms.26 Clinicians should routinely monitor patients for symptoms of thyroid disease, especially those at risk for thyroid disease including elderly women (See Table 2).27

 

Table 2. Thyroid Disease’s Common Symptoms
Hypothyroidism Hyperthyroidism
Whole body Fatigue, lethargy, cold sensitivity Hunger, fatigue, weakness, sweating, increased appetite, heat intolerance, insomnia
Mood/behavioral Depression, irritability, sluggish, brain fog Nervousness, restlessness, hyperactivity, panic attacks
Cardiac Bradycardia, elevated cholesterol Tachycardia, palpitations
Weight Weight gain Weight loss
Hair, skin, nails Hair loss, dry skin/hair, brittle nails Hair loss, warm skin
Eyes/face Periorbital edema, puffy face Proptosis (abnormal protrusion of eyes)
Gastrointestinal Constipation Frequent bowel movements
Menstruation/fertility Heavy or irregular menstrual periods, fertility problems Amenorrhea, lighter or irregular menstrual periods, fertility problems
Musculoskeletal Joint/muscle pain Osteoporosis
Thyroid presentation May be enlarged May be enlarged

 

Weight gain is a common and often first symptom of hypothyroidism. Up to 82% of women with HT have excess body weight and a third suffer from obesity.28 Despite achieving euthyroidism (normal thyroid function) with levothyroxine treatment, many women continue to struggle to lose weight. Caloric reducing diets are often unsuccessful and excess body weight increases risk for comorbidities.29

 

Food sensitivity and the effects of elimination diets on autoimmune disease have gained interest. An interventional/observational study evaluated the effect of an elimination diet in obese women diagnosed with HT. The researchers observed that women eliminating sensitive foods (foods that may cause an IgG antibody reaction) in addition to caloric reduction had a greater decrease in body mass index (BMI) when compared to women only reducing caloric intake.30 Improvement in thyroid function laboratory parameters was also observed in the group eliminating sensitive foods.31

 

LABS TO ASSESS THYROID FUNCTION

Thyroid function is assessed mainly through readily available laboratory blood tests. Results of basic thyroid function laboratory tests largely differentiate and diagnose thyroid disease (See Table 3).

 

Table 3. Thyroid Function Tests in Hypothyroidism and Hyperthyroidism32

TSH (Thyrotropin) FT4 (Thyroxine) T3
Lab reference range*  

0.5-4.8 mIU/L

 

0.7-1.8 ng/dL

 

80-220 ng/dL

Hypothyroidism
Primary, untreated High Low Low or normal
Secondary to pituitary disease Low or Normal Low Low or normal
Hyperthyroidism
Untreated Low High High
T3 toxicosis Low Normal High

*Reference ranges may vary among laboratories.

 

TSH is the best measurement to assess thyroid function. A normal TSH essentially rules out thyroid disease, except in the less common cases of disease affecting the hypothalamus or pituitary gland. The American Thyroid Association (ATA) recommends routine screening of TSH in adults beginning at age 35 and repeating the test every five years.27

 

T4 is the primary thyroid hormone circulating in the blood. T4 is found in the body in two forms: free T4 and bound T4. More than 99% of T4 is bound. Because T4 is converted into T3, free T4 (FT4) is the more important hormone to measure. Any changes show up in T4 first; therefore, FT4 reflects thyroid gland function more accurately.33 Assessment of T3 is primarily used to diagnose and manage hyperthyroidism. It is rarely assessed in hypothyroidism since it’s the last test to become abnormal.34

 

Patients with thyroid autoimmunity disease develop thyroid autoantibodies. Measurement of autoantibodies may help diagnosis, but clinicians need not monitor them routinely for disease management. Physicians typically order TSH with reflex to FT4 to assess thyroid function in disease management. Reflex testing allows the laboratory to automatically add the FT4 test to the blood sample based on an abnormal TSH result.35

 

Clinicians sometime use radioactive iodine uptake (a non-blood test) to assess thyroid function. Because iodine is a necessary component of thyroid hormone, administering radioactive iodine and calculating its uptake by the thyroid can determine if the gland is functioning properly. Very high uptake is associated with hyperthyroidism while low iodine uptake indicates hypothyroidism.34

 

TREATMENT APPROACHES

Levothyroxine

Levothyroxine sodium tablets (Synthroid and many generics) are synthetic T4 and indicated as replacement therapy in all hypothyroidism, regardless of the cause. Thyroid replacement hormone has a narrow therapeutic index and prescribers must individualize each patient’s levothyroxine dose. It is available in 12 different strengths, making it possible for prescribers to titrate doses carefully and avoid under- or over-treatment. Tablets are color-coded and are available from many manufacturers. (See Table 4.)

 

Table 4. Various Strengths and Colors of Levothyroxine Tablets

Strength Color
25 mcg Orange
50 mcg White
75 mcg Violet
88 mcg Mint green
100 mcg Yellow
112 mcg Rose
125 mcg Brown
137 mcg Deep blue
150 mcg Light blue
175 mcg Lilac
200 mcg Pink
300 mcg Green

 

Variability in levothyroxine absorption may exist across manufacturers. A cohort study in the Netherlands evaluated a forced switch of levothyroxine brand. The researchers concluded that a dose-equivalent levothyroxine brand switch might necessitate a dose adjustment.36 The ATA recommends using a consistent manufacturer. If a brand switch is made, the pharmacy team must inform prescribers; it may necessitate a dose adjustment.37

 

Sidebar: Tech Tasks for Thyroid Medications

 

  • Inform patients about the importance of using a consistent brand of levothyroxine.
  • Note brand of levothyroxine on each patient’s profile.
  • Review levothyroxine shipments when restocking to assure consistent brand use.
  • Tag all bags and inform the patient if a brand switch is made.

 

Peak therapeutic effect of levothyroxine is seen in four to six weeks. Prescribers often start levothyroxine at low doses and titrate in small increments of 12.5 to 25 mcg every four to six weeks based on TSH testing until achieving euthyroidism.38 Average full replacement dose is 1.6 mcg/kg/day. Current ATA guidelines recommend adjusting the levothyroxine dose to resolve symptoms of hypothyroidism and to keep the TSH level within the range of 0.4 to 4 mIU/L.29 Clinicians should assess thyroid function in patients on stable doses of levothyroxine every six to 12 months and within six to eight weeks of any dose change. Ongoing assessment helps avoid under- or over-replacement.38

 

Adverse reactions associated with levothyroxine therapy are primarily those of hyperthyroidism and include the following37:

  • Anxiety
  • Diarrhea
  • Fatigue
  • Hair loss
  • Heat intolerance, excessive sweating
  • Increased appetite
  • Increased heart rate
  • Muscle weakness
  • Nervousness
  • Palpitations
  • Weight loss

 

Over-replacement with levothyroxine can lead to serious consequences and can put elderly patients at risk for cardiac arrhythmias, especially atrial fibrillation.10 Complications of over-replacement include

  • Accelerated bone loss
  • Increased cardiac contractility
  • Increased cardiac wall thickness
  • Increased heart rate
  • Osteoporosis
  • Reduction in bone mineral density

 

Medications, supplements, food, coffee, and even orange juice can decrease levothyroxine’s absorption.10 Levothyroxine is taken with water one hour before breakfast and any other prescription medications. Calcium, iron, antacids, cholestyramine, and sucralfate can inhibit its absorption and must be separated by at least four hours.37 Individuals with celiac disease or gastric bypass surgery may absorb medication inadequately.40,41

 

Bedtime dosing of levothyroxine offers an alternative to morning dosing. Randomized controlled trials have found patients taking the medication in the evening had improved thyroid hormone status control.38,42 Patients struggling with morning dosing may find evening dosing easier. The ATA recommends that if levothyroxine is taken at bedtime that it be separated by three hours from the evening meal.43

 

Because levothyroxine is usually administered for life, dose adjustment is often necessary to optimize therapy throughout a patient’s lifetime.44 Situations that necessitate possible dose adjustment of levothyroxine include

  • Aging (age older than 65)
  • Diagnosis of new medical conditions
  • Pregnancy
  • Start of new medications
  • Weight changes

 

The Colorado Thyroid Disease Prevalence study assessed thyroid function, symptoms, and corresponding lipid levels in more than 25,000 participants. Among patients taking thyroid medication, only 60% were within the normal range of TSH. Modest TSH elevations corresponded to changes in lipid levels that may affect cardiovascular health.25 Optimization of levothyroxine therapy requires that the healthcare team recognize the need for dose adjustments throughout a patient’s life.

 

PAUSE AND PONDER: Among your patients being treated for hypothyroidism, how many also take calcium supplements? How many of these patients know to separate them from levothyroxine by four hours?

 

Liothyronine

Liothyronine (Cytomel) is synthetic T3. It is not recommended, either alone or in combination with levothyroxine, as first line treatment for hypothyroidism. Combination therapy hopes to mimic thyroid hormone physiology more closely; however, current guidelines do not suggest routine use of this approach.10 A 2016 randomized, double blind, crossover study evaluated combination therapy in 32 patients and found no clear clinical benefit and observed increased heart rate in patients receiving it.45A trial, however, may be indicated in a small group of patients who remain symptomatic despite adequate levothyroxine monotherapy.46

 

Iodine

Patients with iodine deficient hypothyroidism are treated with iodine supplements to correct the deficiency while levothyroxine is used to achieve euthyroidism. When the iodine level has been restored and goiter size has decreased, levothyroxine may be interrupted. Prescribers should reassess thyroid function in four to six weeks.11

 

Consumption of too much iodine can have a negative impact on thyroid health. The safe upper limit of iodine for adults is 1.1 mg/day.63 Iodine toxicity may lead to thyroiditis, hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, and thyroid papillary cancer.47 Pharmacists should be aware that drug interactions with potassium iodine exist. It can interact with antithyroid drugs and when potassium iodide is taken with ACE inhibitors or potassium sparing diuretics, serum potassium can increase.13

 

Selenium

Selenium is an important micronutrient in the diet and increases active thyroid hormone production. The RDA for selenium is 55 mcg/day. Selenium supplements are used to treat or prevent selenium deficiency. Doses exceeding 400 mcg/day can be toxic. Signs of toxicity include brittle hair and nails, diarrhea, irritability, and nausea. Extremely high intakes of selenium can cause severe problems, including difficulty breathing, tremors, kidney failure, heart attacks, and heart failure. Most people consume adequate selenium through the diet, which is preferred. Consuming two Brazil nuts daily can provide adequate selenium intake; each nut contains 68 to 91 mcg of selenium, so people should not consume too many. Selenium is also found in oysters, tuna, whole-wheat bread, sunflower seeds, meat, mushrooms, and rye.48

 

Subclinical Hypothyroid Disease

Subclinical hypothyroidism is a common condition occurring in about 15% of older women and 10% of older men.2 It is a persistent condition in which TSH levels are elevated but free T4 levels remain normal. Treating subclinical hypothyroidism with levothyroxine results in an improved quality of life for many while others show no benefit and continue to complain of symptoms despite treatment.

 

The decision to treat subclinical hypothyroidism is being reevaluated after a large European study found no clear benefit with treatment.3 Published in the New England Journal of Medicine in 2017, this double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, parallel-group trial concluded levothyroxine provided no apparent benefits in older people with subclinical hypothyroidism.49 Investigators are conducting more research to evaluate the effect of discontinuing levothyroxine in subclinical hypothyroidism.50 They hope to determine if discontinuing levothyroxine in patients with subclinical hypothyroidism is safe or will reduce quality of life.

 

For now, prescribers should follow current clinical practice guidelines, which state that they should tailor the decision to treat subclinical hypothyroidism to the individual patient when the serum TSH is less than 10 mIU/L. Prescribers should consider the presence of symptoms and how likely the patient will progress to overt hypothyroidism when making the decision to treat.24

 

Antithyroid Drugs

The treatment goal for hyperthyroid disease is to lower excessive thyroid hormone levels and achieve euthyroidism. The two antithyroid drugs (ATD) available in the U.S. for the treatment of hyperthyroidism are methimazole (Tapazole) and propylthiouracil (PTU). Hepatotoxicity has been reported with both medications but methimazole has been associated with far fewer cases. Therefore, methimazole is used as first line therapy, except in pregnancy.51

 

ATDs inhibit T4 and T3 synthesis by blocking oxidation of iodine in the thyroid gland. PTU also partially blocks peripheral conversion of T4 to T3. Beta-blockers can provide symptomatic relief in patients with hyperthyroidism.

 

Methimazole is available in 5 mg and 10 mg tablets. The starting dose is 5 mg to 20 mg orally every eight hours. Prescribers must titrate the dose over time to the lowest dose needed to maintain euthyroidism. Maintenance doses range from 5 mg to 30 mg/day administered once daily. Once euthyroidism is achieved, patients usually continue the ATD for another 12 to 18 months. The prescriber should check thyroid function four to six weeks after therapy initiation and then every two to three months once the patient is euthyroid.12

 

PTU’s labeling carries a boxed warning for acute liver failure, and it is reserved for use in those who cannot tolerate other treatments such as methimazole, radioactive iodine, or surgery.52 It is also recommended for use in the first trimester of pregnancy because birth defects have been associated with methimazole. PTU is available as a 50 mg tablet. The initial starting dose is 50 mg to 150 mg orally every eight hours and the maintenance dose is usually 50 mg every 8 to 12 hours.53

 

Minor side effects occur in about 5% of patients receiving an ATD. Side effects include53

  • Agranulocytosis (severe drop in white blood cells)
  • Arthralgia
  • Gastrointestinal distress
  • Hepatotoxicity
  • Pruritus
  • Vasculitis (dangerous inflammation of blood vessels)

 

Serious side effects are less common at lower doses; patients should be maintained at the lowest possible dose needed to achieve euthyroidism. Although rare, hepatotoxicity and agranulocytosis can be life threatening. Pharmacists should educate patients to report signs of agranulocytosis, such as sudden fever, sore throat, or chills, to their prescribers immediately. Prescribers should obtain a baseline serum liver profile and white blood cell count before starting an ATD. Most side effects occur within the first 90 days of therapy. Vasculitis is more common with longer duration of therapy.

 

A drawback of ATD therapy is the high relapse rate. A longitudinal cohort study concluded that patients initially treated with an ATD had about a 50% relapse rate and 25% felt they had not fully recovered in six to 10 years.54

 

Recent studies have shown that longer treatment time with an ATD can achieve higher remission rates. A randomized, parallel-group study compared relapse rates in patients receiving longer-term versus conventional-length methimazole therapy in GD. The authors concluded that low-dose methimazole treatment for 60 to 120 months was safe and effective and had a higher remission rate compared to conventional treatment for 18 to 24 months.55

 

Long-term methimazole therapy was also evaluated in juvenile GD in a randomized parallel trial. Patients receiving short-term methimazole therapy were almost three times more likely to relapse than those on long-term therapy. The researchers found long-term methimazole treatment of 96 to 120 months to be safe and effective with a significantly higher four-year cure rate.56

 

Teprotumumab

The FDA’s approval of teprotumumab (TEPEZZA) in January 2020 was the most significant advance in treating thyroid eye disease in decades. Teprotumumab binds to IGF-1R and blocks its activation and signaling. It was shown to improve the course of thyroid eye disease in patients in two separate clinical trials, leading to this monoclonal antibody’s approval.23,57 Proptosis and diplopia improved, as did eye pain, redness and swelling, and quality of life. Serious adverse events were uncommon. The most common adverse reactions observed were

  • alopecia
  • altered sense of taste
  • diarrhea
  • dry skin
  • fatigue
  • headache
  • hearing loss
  • hyperglycemia
  • muscle spasm
  • nausea

 

The FDA approved teprotumumab to be given as an infusion every three weeks for a total of eight doses. Patients completing the course of therapy showed significant improvement in symptoms associated with thyroid eye disease. Infusion reactions are reported in about 4% of patients. Dose is based on weight. The first dose is 10 mg/kg, and then the dose is increased to 20 mg/kg for the remaining seven infusions. Teprotumumab is contraindicated in pregnancy. Women of childbearing age must be counseled on pregnancy prevention during treatment and for six months following the last dose.58

 

PAUSE AND PONDER: Which patients with thyroid disease in your practice might benefit from teprotumumab? What is important to tell them about this new biologic?

 

Surgery

Thyroidectomy is not used as a first line approach for treating hyperthyroidism. It is reserved for patients who refuse radioactive iodine after relapsing on an ATD, patients who cannot tolerate an ATD, or patients with very large goiter, multinodular goiter, or toxic adenoma. Thyroidectomy destroys the thyroid gland and if indicated, patients require lifelong levothyroxine therapy.

 

Radioactive Iodine

In the U.S., radioactive iodine is the most common treatment for hyperthyroidism. Radioiodine therapy, like surgery, destroys the thyroid gland requiring patients to be on lifelong levothyroxine therapy.

 

In the last 20 years, radioiodine has been used less frequently.19 Many patients report a lower quality of life after receiving radioactive iodine than patients receiving ATD or surgical treatment.59 A randomized parallel group trial found that long-term methimazole, when compared to radioiodine, was safe, effective, and not inferior to radioiodine further supporting the use of ATD over radioiodine.60

 

Pregnancy

Undiagnosed or inadequately treated hypothyroidism during pregnancy can lead to miscarriage, preterm delivery, or developmental disorders in children. Levothyroxine is safe in pregnancy, but pregnant patients may require a 30% increase in levothyroxine dose to maintain euthyroidism. During pregnancy, attending healthcare providers should titrate levothyroxine doses against TSH, which has trimester-specific ranges. Postpartum TSH levels are similar to preconception levels, so the dose of levothyroxine should return to the preconception dose following delivery.61

 

Iodine is a critical mineral for proper fetal development and iodine needs increase by at least 50% in pregnancy and lactation. Pregnant women should receive a prenatal vitamin containing 150 mcg of iodine during pregnancy and lactation. Unfortunately, prenatal vitamins contain variable and inconsistent amounts of iodine. Close to 40% of marketed prenatal vitamins in the U.S. contain no iodine and when measured, the actual iodine content varied between 33 and 610 mcg.11 Healthcare practitioners must be vigilant in assuring that iodine requirements are met during pregnancy and lactation when iodine requirements increase. The ATA recommends that women receive 150 mcg of supplemental iodine daily during pregnancy and lactation and that all prenatal vitamin/mineral preparations contain 150 mcg of iodine.11

 

Hyperthyroidism in pregnancy requires special consideration. Care givers must stabilize women undergoing treatment for GD who intend to become pregnant prior to conception. Prescribers should advise women to delay attempts at conception until they achieve a stable euthyroid state, whenever possible.62 Additionally they should treat hyperthyroidism during pregnancy with the lowest possible dose of PTU because methimazole has been associated with cases of congenital malformation.

 

The majority of patients with thyroid eye disease are women of childbearing age. Physicians must explain treatment limitations to patients who are contemplating pregnancy. Teprotumumab is contraindicated in pregnancy. Caregivers must provide contraceptive counseling to women of childbearing age with thyroid eye disease treated with teprotumumab during treatment and for the six months following therapy.23

 

Pharmacy Team’s Role

The pharmacy team can have a positive impact on the successful management of patients with thyroid disease by educating and screening patients regarding

  • Adverse effects associated with their thyroid medications
  • Importance of medication adherence
  • Laboratory assessment of thyroid function
  • Screening for drug interactions
  • Signs and symptoms of hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism

 

CONCLUSION

Thyroid disease affects millions in the U.S. and most cases are well controlled with pharmacological management. Adherence to thyroid disease medications is important. A knowledgeable pharmacy team can promote good practices and provide patient education, having a positive impact on patient care. Proper management allows most patients to have an excellent prognosis and quality of life.

 

With your newly gained knowledge, take another look at the Mona Lisa. Did Leonardo da Vinci, a man before his time, notice a thyroid disorder that he captured in his famous painting and did it intentionally contribute to her enigmatic smile?

 

 

 

Pharmacist Post Test (for viewing only)

This test is for viewing purposes only. If you would like to submit the test, go to the blue button at the top of the page or  Test/Evaluation Site.

 

     
    Pharmacist Post-test
    1. Which of the following statement accurately describes hypothyroid disorders?
    A) They are all of autoimmune etiology
    B) They require treatment with levothyroxine, regardless of cause
    C) They are caused only from disease directly affecting the thyroid gland

    2. A woman of childbearing age who follows a strict vegan diet and only uses sea salt is contemplating pregnancy. Which of the following is a risk?
    A) Selenium deficiency
    B) Vitamin D deficiency
    C) Iodine deficiency

    3. What is the best laboratory assessment of thyroid function?
    A) TSH
    B) T3
    C) Total T4

    4. How often should patients on stable doses of levothyroxine have lab assessment of thyroid function?
    A) every 6-12 months
    B) every 3-6 months
    C) every 24 months

    5) A patient newly diagnosed with Hashimoto’s Thyroiditis (HT) is very concerned with her new diagnosis. What statement MOST ACCURATELY describes HT?
    A) It is an autoimmune disease that has an excellent prognosis and is treated with lifelong levothyroxine therapy.
    B) It is an autoimmune disease that has an excellent prognosis and is treated with liothyronine and levothyroxine.
    C) It is subclinical hypothyroidism and she may not need treatment with levothyroxine.

    6) A patient stable on methimazole for Graves’ disease remarks that she is considering having a child. Why would you encourage her to speak to her primary care provider?
    A) Pregnancy is contraindicated
    B) Methimazole is contraindicated and she should be switched to PTU
    C) Methimazole is contraindicated and she should be switched to teprotumumab

    7) Which medication carries a boxed warning in its labeling for acute liver failure, requiring baseline liver function assessment prior to its start?
    A) Methimazole
    B) Propylthiouracil
    C) Teprotumumab

    8) A patient starting methimazole for Graves’ disease asks about symptoms that are common to the condition. Which statement MOST ACCURATELY describes possible symptoms of GD?
    A) Symptoms of hyperthyroidism may include rapid heart rate, weight loss, nervousness, hunger, fatigue, and hair loss.
    B) Symptoms of hyperthyroidism may include hair loss, fatigue, swelling, puffiness, and depression.
    C) Symptoms of hyperthyroidism may include proptosis, anxiety, difficulty breathing, and weight gain.

    9) Which statement MOST ACCURATELY reflects symptoms of hypothyroidism?
    A) Patients may exhibit many or few symptoms, including fatigue, weight loss, depression, constipation, and hair loss
    B) Patients may exhibit many or few symptoms, including fatigue, weight gain, depression, constipation, and hair loss
    C) Patients may exhibit many or few symptoms, including insomnia, weight gain, depression, constipation, and hair loss

    10) What statement MOST ACCURATELY describes subclinical hypothyroidism?
    A) It is a common persistent condition in which TSH levels are elevated and free T4 is high.
    B) It is a common persistent condition in which TSH levels are elevated and free T4 is low.
    C) It is a common, persistent condition in which TSH levels are elevated and free T4 is normal.

    Pharmacy Technician Post Test (for viewing only)

    This test is for viewing purposes only. If you would like to submit the test, go to the blue button at the top of the page or  Test/Evaluation Site.

     

       
      Pharmacy Technician Post-test

      1. What are common symptoms of hypothyroid disease?
      A) Hair loss, proptosis, hunger, fatigue
      B) Hair loss, depression, weight gain, fatigue
      C) Hair loss, heat intolerance, weight loss, fatigue

      2. A patient who started on levothyroxine a year ago is picking up her refill; she remarks that she continues to feel sluggish, fatigue and is still overweight. The patient asks why she is still feeling unwell. What do you tell her?
      A) Refer this patient to the pharmacist
      B) Assure the patient nothing is wrong
      C) Suggest she take a dietary supplement

      3. Which medication is used to treat hyperthyroidism?
      A) Liothyronine
      B) Levothyroxine
      C) Methimazole

      4. Which medication is used to treat hypothyroidism?
      A) Propylthiouracil (PTU)
      B) Levothyroxine
      C) Methimazole

      5. What are common symptoms of hyperthyroid disease?
      A) Hunger, weight loss, nervousness, palpitations, frequent bowel movements
      B) Weight gain, heat intolerance, excessive sweating, increased heart rate
      C) Fatigue, depression, decreased heart rate, cold sensitivity, constipation

      6. What are the available dosage strengths for levothyroxine?
      A) 12 different tablet strengths ranging in dose from 25-300 mcg in 12.5-25 mcg increments.
      B) 8 different tablet strengths ranging in dose from 50-300 mcg in 25-50 mcg increments
      C)16 different tablet strengths ranging in dose from 100-300 mcg in 25-50 mcg increments

      7. A patient who recently started methimazole calls the pharmacy complaining that suddenly she is feeling feverish with sore throat and chills. What next steps should a pharmacy technician take?
      A) Indicate that she probably has a cold
      B) Refer her to the pharmacist
      C) Tell her to call back if she isn’t better in two days

      8. Which mineral is important for thyroid health?
      A) Calcium
      B) Iron
      C) Selenium

      9. What medication was recently approved for thyroid eye disease marking a significant advancement in treatment?
      A) Propylthiouracil
      B) Methimazole
      C) Teprotumumab

      10. A patient is picking up her levothyroxine refill and was told by her physician that she is anemic. She is purchasing iron supplements too. What is important to communicate to the patient?
      A) Iron supplements must be separated by four hours from levothyroxine
      B) Iron supplements should not be used with levothyroxine
      C) Iron supplements may cause upset stomach and dark stools

      References

      Full List of References

      1. The Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine, Theodore Kocher. The Nobel Prize. Accessed October 17, 2021. https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1909/kocher/biographical/
      2. Porter RS, ed. Merck Manual. 20th ed. Rahway, NJ: Merck Publishing; 2018.
      https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/endocrine-and-metabolic disorders/thyroid-disorders/overview-of-thyroid function?query=Overview%20of%20the%20Thyroid%20Gland.
      3. Brody J. The Subtle Signs of a Thyroid Disorder. The New York Times. July 24, 2017. Accessed August 11, 2021.

      4. The 50 most commonly prescribed drugs in America and their average price. Drugreport. Accessed June 1, 2021. https://www.drugreport.com/50-commonly-prescribed-drugs-in-america/.
      5. Chahardoli R, Saboor-Yaraghi AA, Amouzegar A, Khalili D, Vakili AZ, Azizi F. Can supplementation with vitamin D modify thyroid autoantibodies (anti-TPO Ab, anti-Tg Ab) and thyroid profile (T3, T4, TSH) in Hashimoto's thyroiditis? a double blind, randomized clinical trial. Horm Metab Res. 2019;51(5):296-301. doi:10.1055/a-0856-1044.
      6. Hashimoto’s thyroiditis: the strange-sounding condition you can have without realizing it. Cleveland Clinic. https://health.clevelandclinic.org/hashimotos-thyroiditis-thyroid-disease-condition/ Accessed June 2, 2022.
      7. Cellini M, Santaguida MG, Stramazzo I, et al. Recurrent pregnancy loss in women with Hashimoto's thyroiditis with concurrent non-endocrine autoimmune disorders. Thyroid. 2020;30(3):457-462. doi:10.1089/thy.2019.0456.
      8. Caturegli P, De Remigis A, Rose NR. Hashimoto thyroiditis: clinical and diagnostic criteria. Autoimmun Rev. 2014;13(4-5):391-397. doi:10.1016/j.autrev.2014.01.007.
      9. Zhao F, Feng J, Li J, et al. Alterations of the gut microbiota in Hashimoto's thyroiditis patients. Thyroid. 2018;28(2):175-186. doi:10.1089/thy.2017.0395.
      10. What is the Incidence of Hashimoto Thyroiditis in the US? Medscape. Accessed August 11, 2021.https://www.medscape.com/answers/120937-122448/what-is-the-incidence-of-hashimoto-thyroiditis-in-the-us.
      11. Niwattisaiwong S, Burman KD, Li-Ng M. Iodine deficiency: clinical implications. Cleve Clin J Med. 2017;84(3):236-244. doi:10.3949/ccjm.84a.15053.
      12. De Leo S, Lee SY, Braverman LE. Hyperthyroidism. Lancet. 2016;388(10047):906-918. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)00278-6.
      13. Iodine Fact Sheet for Consumers. National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary. Accessed August 11, 2021. Supplements. https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Iodine-Consumer/
      14. Merk Manual Professional Version. Thyroid Cancers. Accessed October 17, 2021. https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/endocrine-and-metabolic-disorders/thyroid-disorders/thyroid-cancers
      15. Haugen BR. Drugs that suppress TSH or cause central hypothyroidism. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2009;23(6):793-800. doi:10.1016/j.beem.2009.08.003.
      16. Tsang W, Houlden RL. Amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis: a review. Can J Cardiol. 2009;25(7):421-424. doi:10.1016/s0828-282x(09)70512-4.
      17. Trohman RG, Sharma PS, McAninch EA, Bianco AC. Amiodarone and thyroid physiology, pathophysiology, diagnosis and management. Trends Cardiovasc Med. 2019;29(5):285-295. doi:10.1016/j.tcm.2018.09.005
      18. Hamnvik OP, Larsen PR, Marqusee E. Thyroid dysfunction from antineoplastic agents. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2011;103(21):1572-1587. doi:10.1093/jnci/djr373.
      19. Clinical thyroidology for the public. American Thyroid Association. Accessed August 11, 2021. https://www.thyroid.org/patient-thyroid-information/ct-for-patients/november-2016/vol-9-issue-11-p-3-7
      20. Chung HR. Iodine and thyroid function. Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2014;19(1):8-12. doi:10.6065/apem.2014.19.1.8
      21. Jiang W, Yu X, Kosik RO, et al. Gut microbiota may play a significant role in the pathogenesis of Graves' disease. Thyroid. 2021;31(5):810-820. doi:10.1089/thy.2020.0193.
      22. Bahn RS. Graves' ophthalmopathy. N Engl J Med. 2010;362(8):726-738. doi:10.1056/NEJMra0905750.
      23. Douglas RS, Kahaly GJ, Patel A, et al. Teprotumumab for the treatment of active thyroid eye disease. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(4):341-352. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1910434.
      24. Garber JR, Cobin RH, Gharib H, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for hypothyroidism in adults: cosponsored by the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and the American Thyroid Association [published correction appears in Endocr Pract. 2013 Jan-Feb;19(1):175]. Endocr Pract. 2012;18(6):988-1028. doi:10.4158/EP12280.GL.
      25. Canaris GJ, Manowitz NR, Mayor G, Ridgway EC. The Colorado thyroid disease prevalence study. Arch Intern Med. 2000;160(4):526-534. doi:10.1001/archinte.160.4.526.
      26. Hypothyroidism (Underactive Thyroid). National institute of diabetes and digestive and kidney diseases. Accessed August 11, 2021. https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/endocrine-diseases/hypothyroidism.
      27. Ladenson PW, Singer PA, Ain KB, et al. American Thyroid Association guidelines for detection of thyroid dysfunction [published correction appears in Arch Intern Med 2001 Jan 22;161(2):284]. Arch Intern Med. 2000;160(11):1573-1575. doi:10.1001/archinte.160.11.1573.
      28. Song RH, Wang B, Yao QM, Li Q, Jia X, Zhang JA. The impact of obesity on thyroid autoimmunity and dysfunction: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Immunol. 2019;10:2349. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2019.02349.
      29. Khaodhiar L, McCowen KC, Blackburn GL. Obesity and its comorbid conditions. Clin Cornerstone. 1999;2(3):17-31. doi:10.1016/s1098-3597(99)90002-9.
      30. Gocki J, Bartuzi Z. Role of immunoglobulin G antibodies in diagnosis of food allergy. Postepy Dermatol Alergol. 2016;33(4):253-256. doi:10.5114/ada.2016.61600.
      31. Ostrowska L, Gier D, Zyśk B. The influence of reducing diets on changes in thyroid parameters in women suffering from obesity and Hashimoto's disease. Nutrients. 2021;13(3):862. doi:10.3390/nu13030862.
      32. What are Normal Thyroid Hormone Levels? UCLA Health. Accessed August 11, 2021.https://www.uclahealth.org/endocrine-center/normal-thyroid-hormone-levels
      33. Free and Bound T4. University of Rochester. Accessed October 17, 2021. https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.aspx?contenttypeid=167&contentid=t4_free_and_bound_blood.
      34. Thyroid Function Tests. American Thyroid Association. Accessed August 11, 2021. http://www.thyroid.org/thyroid-function-tests/.
      35. Henze M, Brown SJ, Hadlow NC, Walsh JP. Rationalizing thyroid function testing: which TSH cutoffs are optimal for testing free T4?. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2017;102(11):4235-4241. doi:10.1210/jc.2017-01322.
      36. Flinterman LE, Kuiper JG, Korevaar JC, et al. Impact of a forced dose-equivalent levothyroxine brand switch on plasma thyrotropin: a cohort study. Thyroid. 2020;30(6):821-828. doi:10.1089/thy.2019.0414.
      37. Levothyroxine sodium tablets [package insert]. Lloyd, Inc.; 2019.
      38. Srivastava S, Sharma G, Rathore M, et al. A crossover study evaluating effect of timing of levothyroxine on thyroid hormone status in patients of hypothyroidism. J Assoc Physicians India. 2018;66(9):37-40.
      39. Thayakaran R, Adderley NJ, Sainsbury C, et al. Thyroid replacement therapy, thyroid stimulating hormone concentrations, and long term health outcomes in patients with hypothyroidism: longitudinal study. BMJ. 2019;366:l4892. doi:10.1136/bmj.l4892.
      40. Skelin M, Lucijanić T, Amidžić Klarić D, et al. Factors affecting gastrointestinal absorption of levothyroxine: a review. Clin Ther. 2017;39(2):378-403. doi:10.1016/j.clinthera.2017.01.005.
      41. Gadiraju S, Lee CJ, Cooper DS. Levothyroxine dosing following bariatric surgery. Obes Surg. 2016;26(10):2538-2542. doi:10.1007/s11695-016-2314-x.
      42. Bolk N, Visser TJ, Nijman J, Jongste IJ, Tijssen JG, Berghout A. Effects of evening vs morning levothyroxine intake: a randomized double-blind crossover trial. Arch Intern Med. 2010;170(22):1996-2003. doi:10.1001/archinternmed.2010.436.
      43. Jonklaas J, Bianco AC, Bauer AJ, et al. Guidelines for the treatment of hypothyroidism: prepared by the American Thyroid Association task force on thyroid hormone replacement. Thyroid. 2014;24(12):1670-1751. doi:10.1089/thy.2014.0028
      44. Duntas LH, Jonklaas J. Levothyroxine dose adjustment to optimise therapy throughout a patient's lifetime. Adv Ther. 2019;36(Suppl 2):30-46. doi:10.1007/s12325-019-01078-2.
      45. Kaminski J, Miasaki FY, Paz-Filho G, Graf H, Carvalho GA. Treatment of hypothyroidism with levothyroxine plus liothyronine: a randomized, double-blind, crossover study. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2016;60(6):562-572. doi:10.1590/2359-3997000000192.
      46. Dayan C, Panicker V. Management of hypothyroidism with combination thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) hormone replacement in clinical practice: a review of suggested guidance. Thyroid Res. 2018;11:1. Published 2018 Jan 17. doi:10.1186/s13044-018-0045-x.
      47. Southern AP, Jwayyed S. Iodine Toxicity. [Updated 2021 Apr 11]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; Jan. 2021 Accessed August 11, 2021.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK560770/.
      48. Schomburg L. Dietary selenium and human health. Nutrients. 2016;9(1):22. doi:10.3390/nu9010022.
      49. Stott DJ, Rodondi N, Kearney PM, et al. Thyroid hormone therapy for older adults with subclinical hypothyroidism. N Engl J Med. 2017;376(26):2534-2544. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa160382.
      50. Discontinuation of levothyroxine therapy for patients with subclinical hypothyroidism. U.S. National Library of Medicine. Accessed August 11, 2021. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04288115?term=underactive+thyroid&recrs=a&cond=hypothyroidism&fund=01&draw=2&rank=1
      51. Kahaly GJ. Management of Graves Thyroidal and Extrathyroidal Disease: An Update. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2020;105(12):3704-3720. doi:10.1210/clinem/dgaa646.
      52. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Drug Safety Communication: New Boxed Warning on severe liver injury with propylthiouracil. Accessed October 17, 2021. https://www.fda.gov/drugs/postmarket-drug-safety-information-patients-and-providers/fda-drug-safety-communication-new-boxed-warning-severe-liver-injury-propylthiouracil.
      53. Propylthiouracil tablets [package insert]. Chartwell Pharmaceuticals; 2015
      54. Sjölin G, Holmberg M, Törring O, et al. The long-term outcome of treatment for Graves' hyperthyroidism. Thyroid. 2019;29(11):1545-1557. doi:10.1089/thy.2019.0085.
      55. Azizi F, Amouzegar A, Tohidi M, et al. Increased remission rates after long-term methimazole therapy in patients with Graves' disease: results of a randomized clinical trial. Thyroid. 2019;29(9):1192-1200. doi:10.1089/thy.2019.0180.
      56. Azizi F, Takyar M, Madreseh E, Amouzegar A. Long-term methimazole therapy in juvenile Graves' disease: a randomized trial. Pediatrics. 2019;143(5):e20183034. doi:10.1542/peds.2018-3034.
      57. Smith TJ, Kahaly GJ, Ezra DG, et al. Teprotumumab for thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy. N Engl J Med. 2017;376(18):1748-1761. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1614949.
      58. Tepezza (toprotumumab-trbw) [package insert]. Horizon Therapeutics;2021.
      59. Törring O, Watt T, Sjölin G, et al. Impaired quality of life after radioiodine therapy compared to antithyroid drugs or surgical treatment for Graves' hyperthyroidism: a long-term follow-up with the thyroid-related patient-reported outcome questionnaire and 36-item short form health status survey. Thyroid. 2019;29(3):322-331. doi:10.1089/thy.2018.0315.
      60. Azizi F, Takyar M, Madreseh E, Amouzegar A. Treatment of toxic multinodular goiter: comparison of radioiodine and long-term methimazole treatment [published correction appears in Thyroid. 2019 Dec;29(12):1871]. Thyroid. 2019;29(5):625-630. doi:10.1089/thy.2018.0397.
      61. Li SW, Chan SY. Management of overt hypothyroidism during pregnancy. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2020;34(4):101439. doi:10.1016/j.beem.2020.101439.
      62. Managing Graves' disease during pregnancy: risks and benefits. Endocrineweb. Accessed August 11, 2021.
      https://www.endocrineweb.com/conditions/graves-disease/managing-graves-disease-during-pregnancy-risks-benefits.
      63. Iodine Fact Sheet for Professionals. National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements. Accessed August 19, 2021. https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Iodine-HealthProfessional/.

      AI: A New Way to Help Pharmacy Thrive!

      Learning Objectives

       

      After completing this knowledge-based continuing education activity, pharmacists and technicians will be able to

      1. Recognize artificial intelligence (AI) and the models underlying these technologies
      2. Describe the implications of AI within the healthcare and pharmacy fields
      3. List the opportunities and challenges that AI introduces to healthcare and pharmacy services
      4. Recognize AI’s impact on the pharmacy workforce and its implications in shaping the future of pharmacy practice

        Two robotic hands surrounding a box labeled with the letters "AI."

        Release Date:

        Release Date: May 15, 2025

        Expiration Date: May 15, 2028

        Course Fee

        Pharmacist:  $7

        Pharmacy Technician: $4

        ACPE UANs

        Pharmacist: 0009-0000-25-032-H04-P

        Pharmacy Technician: 0009-0000-25-032-H04-T

        Session Codes

        Pharmacist: 25YC32-KFT44

        Pharmacy Technician: 25YC32-FTK68

        Accreditation Hours

        2.0 hours of CE

        Accreditation Statements

        The University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy is accredited by the Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education as a provider of continuing pharmacy education.  Statements of credit for the online activity ACPE UAN 0009-0000-25-032-H04-P/T  will be awarded when the post test and evaluation have been completed and passed with a 70% or better. Your CE credits will be uploaded to your CPE monitor profile within 2 weeks of completion of the program.

         

        Disclosure of Discussions of Off-label and Investigational Drug Use

        The material presented here does not necessarily reflect the views of The University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy or its co-sponsor affiliates. These materials may discuss uses and dosages for therapeutic products, processes, procedures and inferred diagnoses that have not been approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration. A qualified health care professional should be consulted before using any therapeutic product discussed. All readers and continuing education participants should verify all information and data before treating patients or employing any therapies described in this continuing education activity.

        Faculty

        Kortney J. Knudsen, PharmD
        PGY-1 Resident
        Westchester Medical Center
        Valhalla, NY

        Jeannette Y. Wick, RPh, MBA, FASCP
        Director of the Office of Pharmacy Professional Development
        UConn School of Pharmacy
        Storrs, CT

        Faculty Disclosure

        In accordance with the Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education (ACPE) Criteria for Quality and Interpretive Guidelines, The University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy requires that faculty disclose any relationship that the faculty may have with commercial entities whose products or services may be mentioned in the activity.

        Jeannette Y. Wick, RPh and Kortney Knudsen, PharmD have no relationships with ineligible companies and therefore have nothing to disclose.

        ABSTRACT

        The global adoption of artificial intelligence (AI) continues to expand, with AI systems providing essential functions in prediction, recommendation, and decision-making based on their underlying algorithms. Healthcare institutions are exploring how these resources may enhance workflows, improve patient outcomes, and allow clinicians to focus more time on direct patient care. Researchers are exploring AI implementation in numerous areas, including diabetes and heart failure management, medical imaging evaluation, acute kidney injury detection, medication adherence, and electronic health record integration. While AI holds immense potential for transforming healthcare, its implementation faces several challenges. Barriers to AI integration include resource allocation, legal consideration, and securing healthcare provider acceptance. Healthcare professionals must address these barriers for the successful application of AI into daily clinical practice.

        CONTENT

        Content

        INTRODUCTION

        Dolly is a pharmacist in an independent pharmacy working 9 to 5 (what a way to make a living!). Her technician, Miley, calls her to the front to talk with Carol, a 60-year-old woman who consistently wears her smartwatch. Miley tells Dolly, “You have to hear this!” Carol reports that while walking her dog, she tripped and landed face down on the pavement. Carol says her smartwatch called out, “It looks like you’ve taken a hard fall,” and asked if it should call 911. Carol didn’t need emergency services, but she was grateful that the watch detected her fall and could help if necessary. If Carol had been unresponsive, the watch would have called 911 automatically. When Carol left, Miley said, “You know Dolly, I am really concerned that artificial intelligence (AI) is going to replace me.” Dolly nodded and said, “I know. I have some concerns, too. It's enough to drive you crazy if you let it.” Dolly realizes she needs to look into AI and its possibilities.

         

        AI is a technology that learns, reasons, and performs tasks to mimic humans.1 A 2022 Pew Institute survey of 11,004 Americans found that while 55% use AI frequently, awareness of its presence and capabilities varies.2 Only 30% of participants demonstrated high AI awareness, with factors such as education level, income, and Internet use influencing their familiarity.2 Despite growing adoption, public engagement is mixed, with concerns about AI’s impact fueling debate.

         

        Recently, many media outlets have published articles about AI, and many of those pieces have generated public debate and concern.3-5 Public engagement in ethical debates about AI’s use and limitations is only reasonable and well advised if individuals understand its strengths and limitations. Despite the widespread adoption of AI technologies among Americans, another Pew Research Center survey reported that only 15% express more excitement than concern about its increased use in daily life, 38% express more concern than excitement, and 46% are mixed, containing both excitement and concern.6 Nonetheless, AI’s adoption and market value increases annually. Researchers estimated the AI market size at $40 billion in 2022 and expect it to grow to $1.3 trillion by 2032.7

         

        Americans rely on AI in their everyday lives for web searches, task automation, and more—often without even realizing it. Engineers have seamlessly integrated AI into technologies like Siri, Alexa, and Google Home, making everyday tasks more convenient. With almost limitless possibilities, AI continues to evolve and grow, including in the healthcare field.

         

        PAUSE AND PONDER: Take a moment and look at this list. Which of the following are AI powered? You can find the answers at the end of this activity (after the CONCLUSION).

        • Air conditioners
        • Automatic washing machines
        • Basic calculators
        • Customer service chatboxes
        • Email services
        • Facial recognition technology
        • Media/playlist recommendations
        • Purchase recommendations
        • Refrigerators
        • Social media
        • Television remote controls
        • Voice assistants
        • Wearable fitness trackers

         

        Defining AI

        AI systems predict, recommend, and make decisions using machine-based algorithms. Programmers design these systems with a set of rules and human-defined objectives to accomplish a variety of tasks.8,9 As Table 1 implies, no single definition fully captures AI’s complexity, and its applications are broad.1

         

        Table 1. Definitions and Possibilities Associated with AI1
        An artificial system…
        ·         performs tasks in predictable and unpredictable conditions with minimal human oversight
        ·         learns and improves its performance from experience and data set exposure
        ·         is developed in software or hardware
        ·         works to complete tasks requiring human-like action, cognition, communication, learning, perception, or planning
        ·         is developed to mimic human cognition and neural networks
        ·         is made with techniques for approximating a cognitive task
        ·         is designed to act rationally

         

        AI Models

        AI system designs vary based on the AI model used. Common algorithms include machine learning, neural network, deep learning, natural language processing, and rule-based expert systems. Neural network and deep learning fall under the broader category of machine learning. Table 2 describes how developers tailor each model to accomplish specific tasks in unique ways.10 It also captures common AI models used in healthcare with examples for their application.

         

        Table 2. Explanations and Examples of AI Model Applications10-15
        Model Explanation Example(s)
        Machine Learning ·         Fits models to data

        ·         Trains models with data sets

        ·         Encompasses neural network and deep learning models

        ·         Precision medicine: uses information about a person’s genes and lifestyle to prevent, diagnose, or treat disease

        ·         A breast cancer prediction algorithm: interpreted 38,444 mammograms from 9,611 women to predict biopsy malignancy and distinguish between normal and abnormal screenings

        Neural Network ·         Inspired by and mimics the human brain

        ·         Uses nodes that mimic human neurons to process and learn from data

        ·         Considers inputs, outputs, and weights of variables

        ·         Google Photos: uses a neural network to categorize images based on face or object recognition
        Deep Learning ·         Complex model building off the neural network

        ·         Uses features and variables used to predict an outcome

        ·         Facial recognition: uses deep learning for security purposes like unlocking smartphones or for tagging people on social media

        ·         Enables the identification of individuals as the same person, even with changes to physical appearance, lighting, or visual obstructions

        Rule-Based Expert Systems ·         If-then format for decision-making processes

        ·         Constructs rules in a knowledge domain

        ·         Medical diagnosis: if the patient has a fever and a sore throat, then consider the possibility of strep throat

         

        After some research, Dolly was ready to determine the model AI uses to detect falls. She found that smartwatches rely on machine learning models, including deep learning, to identify falls. Specifically, the technology uses accelerometer (an instrument that detects and measures speed and directional vibrations) and gyroscope (an instrument that detects and measures angular momentum) data from the watch to detect abrupt movements and shifts in motion that could signal a fall.16

         

        PAUSE AND PONDER: How can healthcare professionals and leaders integrate AI models into healthcare?

         

        AI IN DISEASE MANAGEMENT

        Integrating AI into healthcare can transform patient care and streamline workflows.10 A recent survey reported that 80% to 90% of forecast panelists believe that AI will improve care, simplify patient referrals, and facilitate prior authorizations.8 Also, 63% of participants indicated that it is very or highly likely for health systems to adopt AI for pharmacist documentation. AI can specifically help document patient information in electronic health records (EHR).8 Some physicians and advanced practice providers are already using AI to improve patient documentation.8

         

        Generative AI uses machine models to analyze data patterns and create content like images and text. In healthcare, it enhances patient care and supports whole-person health.8 This technology can assist with medical image interpretation, inform disease diagnosis, identify care gaps, personalize treatment plans, enable remote patient monitoring, and support early intervention and preventive care.8,17 In her research, Dolly found a number of applications that could improve patient care.

         

        Diabetes Management

        By 2050, statisticians expect that 1.31 billion Americans will have diabetes.18 Diabetes management requires frequent follow-up and comprehensive examinations to monitor blood glucose levels and detect complications.19 Medical resources are unevenly distributed across the United States (U.S.). Physicians are often concentrated in wealthier and suburban areas, leaving rural regions with limited access to primary and specialty care. Yet, rural populations have a 16% higher prevalence of type 2 diabetes (T2DM) and a 20% higher T2DM-related hospital mortality rate compared to urban populations.20

         

        Effective diabetes management requires a collaborative approach involving endocrinology, nutrition, nephrology, ophthalmology, pharmacy, and podiatry. Since primary care alone is insufficient to handle this complex condition, rural areas face significant challenges in diabetes management.19 By 2034, researchers estimate a shortage of 124,000 doctors in the U.S., with the majority of loss in primary care.21 If this prediction is accurate, individuals in rural areas will face growing challenges accessing healthcare. Given the uneven distribution of healthcare resources across various regions, AI advancements may enhance efficiency in diabetes care while diminishing overall health expenditures.10,19

         

        To achieve better care for all people, clinicians may use predictive models to assess disease progression in T2DM, forecast blood glucose levels, and detect diabetic retinopathy.22

         

        AI technology may prevent diabetes onset in high-risk patients by ensuring early medical intervention.19 AI technologies may use non-invasive, cost-effective methods capable of early identification and classification of diabetes.

         

        An emerging theory is that machine learning using facial texture features and tongue color analysis could predict diabetes onset and identify those at high risk. In patients with diabetes, skin manifestations are common.23 These manifestations range from acanthosis nigricans (demarcated plaques with grey to brown pigmentation), to dermopathy (spots on the front of lower legs), to skin thickening.23 The pathophysiology of these conditions is not entirely understood. However, aging and diabetes causes increased collagen interlinking. Consequentially, skin changes like thickening and hardening may occur.23

         

        In Chinese Medicine, practitioners believe face regions reflect the health of internal organs.24 Asian researchers postulated that tongue discoloration, such as a yellow coating, is linked to diabetes, with studies showing a connection between tongue features and glucose metabolism.25,26 In 2017, researchers conducted a study to determine which model analyzes facial texture and color to detect diabetes most accurately.24 They took facial images, divided them into regions, characterized regions by textures, and analyzed them using eight different models.24 In 2019, Chinese researchers collected tongue images from 570 patients and analyzed their color and texture using AI models. The results demonstrated that these models may effectively associate tongue images with diabetes, but these studies remain preliminary.25

         

        In 2024, 8.7 million Americans or 3.4% of all U.S. adults met laboratory criteria for diabetes but were not aware that they had this condition.27 Delayed diagnosis is a common concern in diabetes, with about 45% of adults worldwide undiagnosed.18 Current diabetes diagnostic tests include hemoglobin A1C, fasting plasma glucose, 2-hour plasma glucose, and oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). These four tests are invasive as they require venipuncture.24 Non-invasive diagnostic methods, such as analyzing facial images and tongue color, could help identify diabetic patients who are unaware of their condition.

         

        Dolly is fascinated by this information, but aware that these findings are very preliminary. Recently, one of her favorite patients, Lily, had gained weight rapidly in the early trimesters of pregnancy. Her obstetrician ordered an OGTT. Before the test, Lily fasted, then drank a sugary solution and had her blood sugar levels measured at specific intervals. This process was challenging for Lily, as the sight of blood and having her blood drawn nauseates her. Dolly wishes that non-invasive methods were currently available.

         

        In primary care, AI technologies may create personalized diet and exercise plans for people with diabetes. These plans could align with clinician recommendations and contribute to effective diabetes management.18

         

        Despite the promise of AI technology in diabetes management, predicting blood glucose levels remains challenging because food and subcutaneously administered insulin absorption rates vary. AI technologies are increasingly embedded into continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) systems to predict blood glucose levels. CGMs track patients’ blood glucose levels in real time and eliminate frequent finger pricks. CGMs provide regular and accurate blood glucose data, offering greater convenience than traditional finger sticks. Regardless, errors may still occur. CGM may report blood glucose levels that differ from actual values by roughly 9%. Differences in actual blood glucose level measurements may be an important consideration for individuals with diabetes and their healthcare providers. Soon, it’s likely that AI will also measure ketone levels; some systems will be integrated into CGMs.29

         

        Another obstacle is when clinicians’ recommendations differ from those generated using AI, as both may be correct. To resolve discrepancies, AI may serve as a tool to support human decision-making. Last, AI technology is designed based on the data it receives. Data quality is important for accurately predicting and managing diabetes.19,22

         

        Cardiac Care

        Like diabetes, heart failure (HF)—the inability of an individual’s heart muscle to pump enough blood—is becoming more prevalent. Common symptoms include shortness of breath, fatigue, and swelling of the legs, ankles, or abdomen.30 Worldwide, approximately 60 million individuals live with HF.31 Managing HF requires accurate diagnoses and treatments tailored to individual patients. AI technologies may help diagnose, predict outcomes, classify, and optimize treatment strategies in HF.32

         

        Researchers have published much information on HF, and information on the use of machine learning to analyze this data is increasing. AI algorithms address challenges like data noise (large amounts of unwanted data that make analysis difficult), false correlations (no relationship between two variables), and statistical power issues (a study’s inability to detect accurate results or effects). By streamlining data analysis, AI complements traditional statistical methods to gather insights into HF.32

         

        Researchers have created an AI-based diagnostic algorithm for HF. The study enrolled 600 patients with and without HF. The results demonstrated a diagnostic accuracy of 98% and surpassed non-specialist clinicians, who had an accuracy of 76%. In regions with limited access to HF specialists, these AI technologies could be beneficial.32,33

         

        Patients with HF also face high 30-day readmission rates. Decreasing HF hospital admissions and readmissions is important considering the financial penalties that the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) impose. CMS reduces hospital payments by a percentage following unplanned 30-day readmissions for patients with HF.34 The hospitalization rate has improved from about 367 hospitalizations per 100,000 adults in 2016 to 350 hospitalizations in 2020. However, Healthy People 2030’s target is 330 per 100,000, meaning more improvement is needed.35

         

        Deep learning AI models may help lower hospital readmissions for patients with HF. In a 900-patient cohort study, these technologies outperformed traditional techniques in predicting readmission rates. This AI algorithm used heart sounds, respiratory rate, tidal volume (the amount of air that moves in and out of the lungs during a normal breath), heart rate, and patient activity to make predictions.32

         

        The rising use of remote monitoring and wearable devices is likely to expand AI’s effectiveness in managing HF. AI-powered smartwatches programmed with electrocardiography features demonstrate acceptable accuracy in detecting HF with reduced ejection fraction. These technologies allow continuous data streams, better prediction in hospital readmission rates, and earlier HF identification.31,32

         

        Dolly finds that smartwatches can also be useful for patients who have or are at risk for atrial fibrillation (AFib). Carol, the patient whose smartwatch detected a fall, has been worried that she might develop AFib, which causes irregular heartbeats. Last week, the watch detected an episode of AFib. When Carol visited her provider, she brought the printed electrocardiogram showing the episode. This enabled the provider to make informed decisions about next steps, supported by AI technologies.

         

        Sepsis Identification

        Globally, sepsis—a life-threatening response to an infection—is a leading cause of illness and death.36 Patients with sepsis present with varying degrees of severity, ranging from mild sepsis to septic shock. It can lead to tissue damage, organ failure, and death. Sepsis’s variable presentation makes early detection challenging. However, prompt recognition of sepsis is critical, as every hour without treatment increases the risk of death.36

         

        AI technologies may predict sepsis hours before its onset. Through machine learning and predictive algorithms, AI improves the accuracy of sepsis detection in a clinical setting.36-38 Researchers conducted a prospective, multi-center study of 590,736 patients across five hospitals, with 6,877 included in the analysis.38 During the study, researchers used the Targeted Real-time Early Warning System (TREWS) as a sepsis alert system for providers.38 TREWS is a machine learning-based algorithm that notifies providers when a patient is at high risk for sepsis.

         

        TREWS integration enabled early intervention from providers and reduced the hospital mortality rate by 5.1% when providers responded to the alert within three hours.38 The TREWS intervention group also saw a 4.5% decrease in overall mortality compared to patients whose providers did not respond within three hours. Patients flagged as high risk also experienced reductions in organ failure severity.38 A critical point is provider response time. It is possible that providers who responded more quickly simply had better resources or teams at their disposal.39

         

        This study’s major limitation was the predetermined alert settings, which may have influenced the alerts and their associations with clinical outcomes.38 TREWS notified providers when patients exhibited significant findings related to sepsis. This constraint limits the study’s generalizability, as variations in alert settings may lead to significant differences in the timing of alerts and, potentially, patient outcomes. Future implementation may adopt a less restrictive model, allowing earlier warnings by identifying patients with fewer sepsis-related criteria.38

         

        Alert fatigue—healthcare provider desensitization to safety alerts—may also limit this study’s applicability to clinical practice.38 Alert fatigue often causes individuals to not respond properly to safety alerts and warnings.40 TREWS integration may contribute to the alert fatigue phenomenon that plagues the healthcare industry.

         

        Despite this study’s promising results, few large, randomized controlled trials (RCTs) have evaluated AI-based alerts for patients with sepsis.37

         

        Acute Kidney Injury Alert

        Acute kidney injury (AKI; a decline in the kidney filtrate rate) impacts approximately 18% of inpatients and greater than 50% of patients in intensive care units.41 Like managing HF and diabetes, early detection is critical.41,42 Two studies have examined AI in AKI.

         

        Chinese researchers led a double-blind RCT to evaluate the impact of electronic alerts on adults with AKI.41 They randomized more than 2,000 hospitalized patients to determine whether an AKI alert combined with management strategies improves care and clinical outcomes. The data showed that alerts did not improve kidney function or overall patient outcomes. However, the alerts influenced treatment approaches. Patients in the alerts group received more intravenous fluids (82.6% vs 61.8%), fewer nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (5% vs 11%), and more AKI documentation at discharge (49.9% vs 27.3%).41

         

        Another double-blinded, multicenter RCT enrolled more than 6,000 patients. Researchers concluded that the AKI alerts did not reduce the risk of AKI progression, dialysis initiation, or death within 14 days of randomization.42

         

        Both studies found that integrating their specific AKI alert algorithms into EHR did not improve patient outcomes.41-43 However, pairing these alerts with management strategies influenced providers’ treatment decisions. These findings suggest that while changes in treatment strategies may not directly benefit patients, they may help avoid medications that can contribute to AKI.41,42

         

        Image Interpretation

        Beyond its use in facial recognition for social media and security, AI also has the proven potential to analyze medical images. Specifically, AI technologies show promise in oncology for identifying and categorizing cancers, and in managing diabetic retinopathy.

         

        Oncology

        Researchers are developing AI models for cancer imaging, aiming to improve tumor detection, characterization, and monitoring.10,44 These tools identify various cancers and predict patient outcomes very accurately.45 They can help minimize oversights and serve as an initial screen to reduce omission errors.

         

        AI tumor characterization involves tumor segmentation (outlining and identifying boundaries of the tumor in images), diagnosis, and staging. AI-driven automated segmentation has the potential to enhance the efficiency, reproducibility, and quality of tumor measurements.44 It may also improve the ability to monitor changes in tumors over time. Despite these promising advancements, challenges remain in ensuring accurate detection, characterization, and monitoring.44

         

        Diabetic Retinopathy

        AI models can detect diabetic retinopathy, a complication of diabetes that progressively impairs vision over time. AI identification of diabetic retinopathy is facilitated through retinal fundus imaging, which has demonstrated high sensitivity and selectivity, as defined in the SIDEBAR.22,46,47

         

        SIDEBAR: Differentiating Sensitivity and Specificity47
        Sensitivity Specificity
        ·         A test’s ability to determine whether an individual with the disease is positive

        ·         High sensitivity: limited false negative results—few cases where the disease is missed

        ·         A test’s ability to determine if an individual who does not have the disease is negative

        ·         High specificity: limited false positive results

        ·         Using a test with low specificity causes many people without the disease to screen as positive and receive treatment

         

        In 2017, researchers enrolled 521 participants across 10 U.S. centers. Each patient underwent a dilated ophthalmoscopy (an eye exam). The AI algorithm accurately identified 36 of 37 positive cases (97% sensitivity) and 162 of 184 negative cases (88% specificity).46 The researchers concluded that the AI system detects mild diabetic retinopathy more effectively than general ophthalmologists or retina specialists. This tool may offer a low-cost solution for diabetic retinopathy screening and help reduce the burden of diabetic eye screenings.46


        Electronic Health Records

        Approximately 80% of clinically relevant healthcare information is unstructured data.48 Applying a natural language processing (NLP)-based algorithm to the EHR may help hospitals identify patients who need a clinical pharmacist’s review. NLP models possess the ability to engage in speech recognition, text analysis, and translation, with goals centered around language processing. One example of its use is transcribing patient interactions, which may be helpful for medication reconciliation. Similarly, NLP-based systems can prepare reports, such as patient notes within the EHR, and analyze these notes.10 By analyzing notes, the system can also identify patients requiring extensive medication interventions and categorize them as high risk. This classification enables pharmacists to dedicate their efforts to patients most likely to benefit, ultimately enhancing their impact on patient care.48

         

        AI models may also detect and alert providers when an ordered medication deviates from its typical use pattern. AI captures information on standard dosages and indications, aiding drug selection, dose recommendations, drug-drug interaction detection, and order entry.49 This tool supports pharmacists and other healthcare providers in clinical decision-making to minimize medication-related errors and improve patient outcomes.49

         

        Generative AI models may streamline providers’ documentation processes. Clinicians spend approximately 35% of their time documenting patient data and notes.50 AI technologies may reduce this workload, allowing providers to focus more on patient care. However, before integrating AI into documentation, leaders must set clear guidelines. For effective use, these guidelines must address concerns such as data security, accuracy, reliability, ethical considerations, and the need for ongoing evaluation of AI programs to ensure regular maintenance and optimization.51

         

        The possibilities for AI integration in EHR are endless. With proper use, these resources help streamline workflow and increase time providers spend on direct patient care.

         

        PAUSE AND PONDER: What are the opportunities and challenges for AI integration into healthcare?

         

        AI CHALLENGES

        A major challenge is AI’s inability to explain how it arrives at its conclusions, referred to as model transparency. Predictive modeling and deep learning procedures are difficult to adopt in clinical environments. The algorithms behind these models often lack transparency and experimental context.8,22

         

        For clinicians to accept AI, they must understand how models generate recommendations. By detailing internal decisions, behaviors, and actions, AI’s developers can build trust among healthcare providers. Developers must equip clinicians with sufficient information to understand each event’s causes. Subsequently, providers can determine how to incorporate AI recommendations into their clinical decision-making processes.8,22

         

        Another barrier arises from EHRs’ limitations. Since EHR data is not publicly available, AI technologies may struggle to generate comprehensive recommendations. Also, healthcare organizations often restrict data access to internal use, leaving predictive modeling without sufficient information.22 To address this challenge, some experts propose federated learning. This allows institutions to contribute to a global model while keeping sensitive data within their respective systems.10 However, as AI processes large volumes of data, the risk of data breaches and unauthorized access increases. Protecting databases from security threats remains a challenge.8

         

        Bias presents another obstacle. If data used in AI models is homogenous, the results may be skewed. Developers must ensure that training datasets include a wide range of patient demographics and conditions to prevent biased outcomes.8

         

        Cost inhibits widespread adoption of AI. Institutions allocate resources for AI differently. Smaller, rural hospitals may struggle to implement these technologies due to financial constraints.8 Also, demonstrating a clear return on investment for AI integration is difficult. The limited cost avoidance data per intervention and impact on patient outcomes makes it challenging for hospital executives to justify AI investments.8

         

        Legal and ethical considerations further complicate AI acceptance. Mistakes are inevitable with AI technologies. Who will be held accountable for errors, especially when they impact patient outcomes? Healthcare providers may be reluctant to adopt AI technologies if responsibility for potential AI errors is unclear.8,10 This also calls into question regulatory compliance. If AI becomes the standard of care, providers who choose not to use these tools may face legal and regulatory consequences.8,10

         

        Before implementing AI in clinical practice, healthcare institutions must thoroughly test and validate each model. A designated committee containing diverse healthcare professionals should lead the approval process to ensure safe and effective implementation of AI models. This approval process and integration into daily practice may take years.10

         

        After looking at how AI is used currently, the research underway, and AI’s challenges, Dolly feels confident that she can discuss changes in the workplace and pharmacy processes with Miley.

         

        TAILORING AI TO PHARMACY PRACTICE

        Many healthcare providers already recognize the implications of AI integration in healthcare. A recent survey asked pharmacists, “How likely is it the following will occur by the year 2029 in the geographic region where you work?”8 Table 3 displays the findings on AI integration in pharmacists’ documentation and medication histories.8

         

        Table 3. Forecast Panelists’ Survey Responses to AI Integration in 20298
        Response Percent of Responders
        Statement 1: 50% of health systems will adopt technology in the EHR for pharmacist documentation to be completed by generative AI.
        Very Unlikely 4%
        Somewhat Unlikely 33%
        Somewhat Likely 44%
        Very Likely 19%
        Statement 2: 25% of health systems will use a Chatbot to obtain medication histories.
        Very Unlikely 10%
        Somewhat Unlikely 33%
        Somewhat Likely 43%
        Very Likely 14%
        AI, artificial intelligence; EHR, electronic health record.

         

        As healthcare professionals acknowledge AI’s expanding function, they must develop a strong understanding of these technologies. Pharmacists and pharmacy technicians, in particular, need a basic knowledge of AI.48 With this foundation, pharmacists can assess AI models’ strengths and limitations and determine when and how to use them effectively.

         

        To establish a baseline understanding of AI technologies, institutions must integrate education and didactic experiences into training for pharmacy technicians, pharmacy students, and pharmacists.52,53 This will equip healthcare providers with the basic skills needed to evaluate AI models and understand its responsibility in improving patient care.

         

        AI and the Pharmacy Workforce

        Like Miley, may pharmacy personnel worry that AI may replace pharmacists and pharmacy technicians. In the United Kingdom, researchers estimate 35% of all jobs—including some pharmacy-related positions—could be automated in the next 10 to 20 years.10 However, they also predict job losses will amount to less than 5%. This is because of factors like cost of automation technologies, labor market dynamics, and regulatory and social acceptance. These circumstances create major barriers in the widespread adoption of AI across industries and may mitigate actual job loss.10

         

        In healthcare, similar trends are expected. To date, AI has not eliminated jobs.10 Pharmacy student enrollment is unlikely to rise, and researchers predict that 20% of first year post-graduate residency spots will remain unfilled after the match. As a result, they anticipate the pharmacy workforce will decline.8 This projected reduction has led to expectations that AI will assist with repetitive pharmacy tasks, allowing pharmacists and technicians to focus on responsibilities that require human expertise.

         

        With the integration of AI into healthcare, pharmacists are expected to expand their scope of practice into areas where they can use their skills more and influence outcomes.8,10 These include managing high-cost medications, bridging gaps in primary care, applying empathy and persuasion, and taking a big-picture approach to patient care. While AI is designed to mimic certain human actions, it is not human. It lacks interpersonal skills and the ability to build relationships. Ultimately, AI will complement pharmacists by streamlining repetitive tasks, addressing workforce shortages, and enabling them to use their unique human intelligence abilities.8,10

         

        Adverse Drug Reactions

        A primary responsibility for pharmacists in medication management is to mitigate patients’ risk of adverse drug reactions (ADRs). EHR systems use AI for ADR prediction and detection. For example, if a prescriber orders amiodarone for a patient who is already taking warfarin, the system is designed to alert healthcare providers that the combination leads to high bleeding risk. Current systems already deliver this alert, and an AI-assisted system may recommend providers decrease the patient’s warfarin dose empirically by 30% to 50%.54 However, like any test or algorithm, false positives and negatives can occur, meaning these systems are not foolproof. It is crucial that clinicians and pharmacists do not rely solely on these alerts for detecting ADRs or sending notifications. Instead, they should apply clinical decision-making and rely on their expertise.

         

        A recent study involving 412 patients used a machine learning algorithm to predict the likelihood of ADRs in neonates.55 Researchers designed the algorithm to associate a risk score to predict and prevent ADRs, rather than simply display a warning as is done currently for certain medications. The model displayed high predictive accuracies, successfully detecting ADRs in patients with allergic, renal, central nervous system, and hepatic ADRs 78.9% to 90.2% of the time.49,55 These models illustrate AI’s broad application in ADR detection which supports clinical decision-making.

         

        AI also offers opportunities to improve patient adherence. It can trigger patient-specific message alerts, such as medication renewal reminders for both the pharmacist and the patient. This ensures timely prescription refills, helps maintain a consistent medication supply, and supports better medication adherence for improved health outcomes. Wearable devices like smartwatches and smartphones also integrate AI technology that may encourage behavioral changes and enhance adherence.10 For example, some smartwatches offer a time-to-stand reminder. If individuals have not moved within the first 50 minutes of an hour, the watch will remind them to stand. Simple alerts like these increase movement and encourage behavior changes.

         

        Beyond clinical applications, AI has the potential to transform pharmacy operations. AI technology may request and process prior authorizations (something of great interest to Dolly and Miley), manage the supply chain, optimize pharmacy revenue cycles, and track financial performance.8

         

        CONCLUSION

        AI technologies are likely to revolutionize healthcare by enhancing clinical decision-making, improving patient outcomes, and streamlining workflows. Through automation of routine tasks and data analysis, AI can help healthcare providers deliver more efficient care. However, significant barriers including algorithm transparency, bias, cost, and accountability concerns must be addressed before AI is widely adopted. Overcoming these challenges requires collaboration among healthcare providers, policy makers, and AI developers. Establishing clear guidelines and validation procedures will help ensure AI technologies are safe and used properly. With proper implementation and education, AI is a powerful tool that enhances healthcare professionals’ abilities. Dolly and Miley now appreciate that it cannot replace human skills like empathy, critical thinking, and personalized communication.

         

        PAUSE AND PONDER: Take a moment and look at this list. Which of the following are AI powered? These are the answers that we promised to provide!

        • Air conditioner
        • Automatic washing machine
        • Basic calculators
        • Customer service chat box
        • Email services
        • Facial recognition
        • Media/playlist recommendations
        • Purchase recommendations
        • Refrigerators
        • Social media
        • Television remote control
        • Voice assistants
        • Wearable fitness trackers

         

        Answers Examples
        Customer service chat box ·         Chatbots answering basic customer service questions
        Email services ·         Emails automatically categorized as spam
        Facial recognition ·         Unlocking devices

        ·         Password security

        ·         Tagging individuals in social media posts

        Media/playlist recommendations ·         Spotify or Apple Music playlists

        ·         Audiobook platforms

        ·         Streaming services

        Purchase recommendations ·         Social media advertisements

        ·         Web browser advertisements

        Social media ·         Facial recognition

        ·         “For you” page geared to user interests

        Voice assistants ·         Siri

        ·         Alexa

        ·         Google Home

        Wearable fitness trackers ·         ECG monitoring

        ·         Fall detection

         

         

        Pharmacist and Pharmacy Technician Post Test (for viewing only)

        PHARMACIST AND PHARMACY TECHNICIAN LEARNING OBJECTIVES
        After completing this continuing education activity, learners will be able to
        • Recognize artificial intelligence (AI) and the models underlying these technologies
        • Describe the implications of AI within the healthcare and pharmacy fields
        • List the opportunities and challenges that AI introduces to healthcare and pharmacy services
        • Recognize AI’s impact on the pharmacy workforce and its implications in shaping the future of pharmacy practice

        1. An artificial intelligence developer uses an algorithm that mimics the human brain and consists of nodes that mimic human neurons to process and learn from data. What model is the developer using?
        A. Deep learning
        B. Neural network
        C. Rule-based expert system

        2. Which of the following is the BEST descriptor of a possibility associated with AI?
        A. Performs tasks in predictable and unpredictable conditions with minimal human oversight
        B. Performs tasks in predictable conditions only with minimal human oversight
        C. Performs tasks in unpredictable conditions only with direct human oversight

        3. An AI algorithm is designed with the following input and output: “if the patient has diarrhea and vomiting, then consider the possibility of norovirus infection.” What model does this rule represent?
        A. Deep learning
        B. Neural network
        C. Rule-based expert system

        4. When generative AI uses machine models to analyze data patterns and create content in healthcare, how might it enhance patient care?
        A. It can assist with medical image interpretation, inform disease diagnosis, and identify care gaps.
        B. It can replace the clinician’s need to be present at clinic appointments.
        C. It can make decisions for clinicians, write treatment plans, and prescribe medications.

        5. Effective diabetes management requires a collaborative, specialized approach. Since primary care alone is insufficient to handle this complex condition, which of the following current barriers to diabetes management could AI BEST help overcome?
        A. It can help urban areas that have unlimited access to care for diabetes management.
        B. It can help rural areas struggling with limited access to care for diabetes management.
        C. It can help primary care providers eliminate challenges in diagnosing patients with diabetes.

        6. Which of the following represents the MOST significant implication for AI models in cancer imaging?
        A. AI models can improve the efficiency, reproducibility, and quality of tumor measurements.
        B. AI models can improve the accuracy of tumor detection and consider patient’s medical history.
        C. AI models have the potential to enhance the accuracy in detection, monitoring, and make decisions for providers.

        7. Which of the following is a CHALLENGE associated with AI use in healthcare?
        A. Identifying patients by their unique identifiers may be impossible.
        B. Identifying solutions with good specificity and sensitivity is difficult.
        C. Identifying who holds responsibility when an error occurs may be unclear.

        8. Dr. Smith is interested in integrating AI technologies. He mentions difficulty reading patients’ notes and getting a complete understanding due to residents copying notes from previous days without updating important details. How can AI technologies BEST address this issue?
        A. NLP-based systems can transcribe interactions, such as medication reconciliations.
        B. NLP-based systems can prepare reports, such as patient notes within the EHR.
        C. NLP-based systems can analyze text, such as patient notes within the EHR.

        9. The Dolly Hospital is a 100- bed facility located 100 miles from the nearest large city. Which of the following is MOST likely a CHALLENGE for AI integration at this institution?
        A. They may struggle to secure the necessary funds.
        B. They may struggle to demonstrate a clear return on investment.
        C. They may struggle to obtain accurate cost avoidance data.

        10. Why is it UNLIKELY that AI will replace pharmacists and cause widespread job loss?
        A. Experts anticipate AI has reached its heyday and will be difficult to develop in new ways.
        B. Experts anticipate the federal government will implement laws preventing AI use in healthcare.
        C. Experts anticipate the pharmacy workforce will decline, making more jobs to be filled.

        11. With the integration of AI into healthcare, how is AI expected to complement pharmacists?
        A. By assisting with repetitive tasks, allowing pharmacists to focus on responsibilities that require human expertise
        B. By assisting with relationship-building, allowing pharmacists to focus on responsibilities that require human expertise
        C. By assisting with personalized communication, allowing pharmacists to focus on responsibilities that require human expertise

        12. Molly needs to provide discharge medication counseling to a patient but is pressed for time. She sends an AI robot to provide the counseling instead. However, the patient refuses this service. Why is it LIKELY that the patient declined the AI robot’s counseling service?
        A. The patient did not want to pay for AI’s automated labor.
        B. The patient did not want to accept AI technologies.
        C. The patient did not want AI-related errors in counseling.

        References

        Full List of References

        References

           

          1. What is Artificial Intelligence? National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). 2023. Accessed February 17, 2025. https://www.nasa.gov/what-is-artificial-intelligence/
          2. Kennedy B, Tyson A, Saks E. Public Awareness of Artificial Intelligence in Everyday Activities. Pew Research Center. 2023. Accessed February 17, 2025. https://www.pewresearch.org/science/2023/02/15/public-awareness-of-artificial-intelligence-in-everyday-activities/
          3. Roose K. The Shidt: When AI passes this test, look out. The New York Times. January 23, 2025. Accessed February 23, 2025. https://www.nytimes.com/2025/01/23/technology/ai-test-humanitys-last-exam.html?searchResultPosition=6
          4. Sommer J. Is Artificial Intelligence Really Worth the Hype? The New York Times. February 7, 2025. Accessed February 23, 2025. https://www.nytimes.com/2025/02/07/business/ai-deepseek-nvidia-tesla.html?searchResultPosition=7
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          6. Ranie L, Funk C, Anderson M, Tyson A. AI and Human Enhancement: Americans’ Openness Is Tempered by a Range of Concerns. Pew Research Center. 2022. Accessed February 18, 2025. https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2022/03/17/ai-and-human-enhancement-americans-openness-is-tempered-by-a-range-of-concerns/
          7. Catsaros O. Generative AI to Become $1.3 Trillion Market by 2031. Bloomberg. 2023. Accessed February 17, 2025. https://www.bloomberg.com/company/press/generative-ai-to-become-a-1-3-trillion-market-by-2032-research-finds/
          8. Nelson SD, Stump LS, Castro H. Navigating Generative AI: Opportunity and Risk. Am J Health-Syst Pharm. 2025;82(2):17-43. doi:10.1093/ajhp/zxae280
          9. Artificial Intelligence. U.S. Department of State. 2023. Accessed February 17, 2025. https://www.state.gov/artificial-intelligence/
          10. Davenport T, Kalakota R. The potential for artificial intelligence in healthcare. Future Healthc J. 2019;6(2):94-98. doi:10.7861/futurehosp.6-2-94
          11. NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms. NIH. Accessed February 18, 2025. https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/precision-medicine#
          12. Lewontin M. How Google Photos uses machine learning to create customized albums. The Christian Science Monitor. 2016. Accessed February 18, 2025. https://www.csmonitor.com/Technology/2016/0324/How-Google-Photos-uses-machine-learning-to-create-customized-albums
          13. Johnson KB, Wei WQ, Weeraratne D, et al. Precision Medicine, AI, and the Future of Personalized Health Care. Clin Transl Sci. 2021;14(1):86-93. doi:10.1111/cts.12884
          14. Marr B. What is Deep Learning AI? A Simple Guide With 8 Practical Examples. Forbes. 2018. Accessed February 18, 2025. https://www.forbes.com/sites/bernardmarr/2018/10/01/what-is-deep-learning-ai-a-simple-guide-with-8-practical-examples/#
          15. Rule-Based System. OpenTrainAI. Accessed February 18, 2025. https://www.opentrain.ai/glossary/rule-based-system#:~:text=Examples/Use%20Cases:,a%20structured%20set%20of%20guidelines.
          16. Greenway N. Apple Watch Fall Detection—Which Apple Series Detects Best? Medical Alert Advice. 2024. Accessed February 20, 2025. https://www.medicalalertadvice.com/articles/apple-watch-fall-detection/#:~:text=Fall%20detection%20technology%20is%20not,%2C%20watch%2C%20or%20other%20device
          17. Manne R, Kantheti SC. Application of Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare: Chances and Challenges. Current Journal of Applied Science and Technology. 2021;40(6): 78-89. doi:0.9734/CJAST/2021/v40i631320
          18. Sheng B, Pushpanathan K, Guan Z, et al. Artificial intelligence for diabetes care: current and future prospects. The Lancet. 2024;12(8):569-595. doi:10.1016/S2213-8587(24)00154-2
          19. Guan Z, Li H, Liu R, et al. Artificial intelligence in diabetes management: Advancements, opportunities, and challenges. Cell Rep Med. 2023;4(10):101213. doi:10.1016/j.xcrm.2023.101213
          20. Dugani SB, Mielke MM, Vella A. Burden and management of type 2 diabetes in rural United States. Diabetes Metab Res Rev. 2021;37(5):e3410. doi:10.1002/dmrr.3410
          21. Five key barriers to healthcare access in the United States. UpToDate, Wolters Kluwer. 2022. Accessed February 20, 2025. https://www.wolterskluwer.com/en/expert-insights/five-key-barriers-to-healthcare-access-in-the-united-states
          22. Yang CC. Explainable Artificial Intelligence for Predictive Modeling in Healthcare. J Healthc Inform Res. 2022;6(2):228-239. doi:10.1007/s41666-022-00114-1
          23. Labib A, Rosen J, Yosipovitch G. Skin Manifestations of Diabetes Mellitus. Endotext [Internet]. 2022. Accessed February 19, 2025. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK481900/
          24. Shi T, Zhang B, Tang YY. An extensive analysis of various texture feature extractors to detect Diabetes Mellitus using facial specific regions. Computers in Biology and Medicine. 2017;83:69-83. doi:10.1016/j.compbiomed.2017.02.005
          25. Li J, Yuan P, Hu X, et al. A tongue features fusion approach to predicting prediabetes and diabetes with machine learning. J Biomed Inform. 2021;115:103693. doi:10.1016/j.jbi.2021.103693
          26. Tomooka K, Saito I, Furukawa S, et al. Yellow Tongue Coating is Associated With Diabetes Mellitus Among Japanese Non-smoking Men and Women: The Toon Health Study. J Epidemiol. 2018;28(6):287-291. doi:10.2188/jea.JE20160169
          27. National Diabetes Statistics Report. CDC. Accessed February 18, 2025. https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/php/data-research/index.html#:~:text=Total:%2038.4%20million%20people%20have,older%20(48.8%25)%20have%20prediabetes
          28. Contreras I, Vehi J. Artificial Intelligence for Diabetes Management and Decision Support: Literature Review. J Med Internet Res. 2018;20(5):e10775. Published 2018 May 30. doi:10.2196/10775
          29. Virdi N, Poon Y, Abaniel R, Bergenstal RM. Prevalence, Cost, and Burden of Diabetic Ketoacidosis. Diabetes Technol Ther. 2023;25(S3):S75-S84. doi:10.1089/dia.2023.0149
          30. What is Heart Failure? AHA. 2023. Accessed February 18, 2025. https://www.heart.org/en/health-topics/heart-failure/what-is-heart-failure
          31. Khan MS, Arshad MS, Greene SJ, et al. Artificial intelligence and heart failure: A state-of-the-art review. Eur J Heart Fail. 2023;25(9):1507-1525. doi:10.1002/ejhf.2994
          32. Yoon M, Park JJ, Hur T, et al. Application and Potential of Artificial Intelligence in Heart Failure: Past, Present, and Future. Int J Heart Fail. 2023;6(1):11-19. doi:10.36628/ijhf.2023.0050
          33. Choi DJ, Park JJ, Ali T, et al. Artificial intelligence for the diagnosis of heart failure. npj Digit Med. 2020;3(54). doi:10.1038/s41746-020-0261-3
          34. Hospital Readmissions Reduction Program (HRRP). CMS. 2024. Accessed February 18, 2025. https://www.cms.gov/medicare/quality/value-based-programs/hospital-readmissions
          35. Reduce heart failure hospitalizations in adults. Healthy People 2030. Accessed February 18, 2025. https://odphp.health.gov/healthypeople/objectives-and-data/browse-objectives/heart-disease-and-stroke/reduce-heart-failure-hospitalizations-adults-hds-09/data?group=None&from=2016&to=2020&state=United%20States&populations=#edit-submit
          36. Haas R, McGill SC. Artificial Intelligence for the Prediction of Sepsis in Adults. CADTH Horizon Scan [Internet]. 2022;2(3). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK596676/
          37. Schinkel M, van der Poll T, Wiersinga WJ. Artificial Intelligence for Early Sepsis Detection: A Word of Caution. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2023;207(7):853-854. doi:10.1164/rccm.202212-2284VP
          38. Adams R, Henry KE, Sridharan A, et al. Prospective, multi-site study of patient outcomes after implementation of the TREWS machine learning-based early warning system for sepsis. Nat Med. 2022;28:1455-1460. doi:10.1038/s41591-022-01894-0
          39. Kennedy JN, Rudd KE. A sepsis early warning system is associated with improved patient outcomes. Cell Rep Med. 2022;3(9):100746. doi:10.1016/j.xcrm.2022.100746
          40. Alert Fatigue. PSNet. 2019. Accessed February 19, 2025. https://psnet.ahrq.gov/primer/alert-fatigue#:~:text=The%20term%20%22alert%20fatigue%22%20describes,respond%20appropriately%20to%20such%20warnings.
          41. Li T, Wu B, Li L, et al. Automated Electronic Alert for the Care and Outcomes of Adults With Acute Kidney Injury: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Netw Open.2024;7(1):e2351710. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.51710
          42. Wilson FP, Martin M, Yamamoto Y, et al. Electronic health record alerts for acute kidney injury: multicenter, randomized clinical trial. BMJ. 2021;372:m4786. doi:10.1136/bmj.m4786
          43. Nelson SD. Artificial intelligence and the future of pharmacy. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2024;81(4):83-84. doi:10.1093/ajhp/zxad316
          44. Bi WL, Hosny A, Schabath MB, et al. Artificial intelligence in cancer imaging: Clinical challenges and applications. CA Cancer J Clin. 2019;69(2):127-157. doi:10.3322/caac.21552
          45. Hoang DT, Dinstag G, Shulman ED, et al. A deep-learning framework to predict cancer treatment response from histopathology images through imputed transcriptomics. Nat Cancer. 2024;5(9):1305-1317. doi:10.1038/s43018-024-00793-2
          46. Lim JI, Regillo CD, Sadda SR, et al. Artificial Intelligence Detection of Diabetic Retinopathy: Subgroup Comparison of the EyeArt System with Ophthalmologists' Dilated Examinations. Ophthalmol Sci. 2022;3(1):100228. doi:10.1016/j.xops.2022.100228
          47. Disease Screening – Statistics Teaching Tools. New York State Department of Health. Accessed February 18, 2025. https://www.health.ny.gov/diseases/chronic/discreen.htm#:~:text=Sensitivity%20refers%20to%20a%20test's,have%20a%20disease%20as%20negative.
          48. Smoke S. Artificial intelligence in pharmacy: A guide for clinicians. Am J Health-Syst Pharm. 2024;81(14):641–646. doi:10.1093/ajhp/zxae051
          49. Chalasani SH, Syed J, Ramesh M, Patil V, Pramod Kumar TM. Artificial intelligence in the field of pharmacy practice: A literature review. Explor Res Clin Soc Pharm. 2023;12:100346. doi:10.1016/j.rcsop.2023.100346
          50. Joukes E, Abu-Hanna A, Cornet R, de Keizer NF. Time Spent on Dedicated Patient Care and Documentation Tasks Before and After the Introduction of a Structured and Standardized Electronic Health Record. Appl Clin Inform. 2018;9(1):46-53. doi:10.1055/s-0037-1615747
          51. Nguyen J, Pepping CA. The application of ChatGPT in healthcare progress notes: A commentary from a clinical and research perspective. Clin Transl Med. 2023;13(7):e1324. doi:10.1002/ctm2.1324
          52. Schutz N, Olsen CA, McLaughlin AJ, et al. ASHP Statement on the Use of Artificial Intelligence in Pharmacy. Am J Health-Syst Pharm. 2020;77(23):2015-2018. doi:10.1093/ajhp/zxaa249
          53. Flynn A. Using artificial intelligence in health-system pharmacy practice: Finding new patterns that matter. Am J Health-Syst Pharm. 2019;76(9):622-627. doi:10.1093/ajhp/zxz018
          54. Amiodarone and Warfarin. Interactions Monograph. UpToDate Lexidrug. UpToDate Inc. Accessed March 27, 2025. https://online.lexi.com
          55. Yalçın N, Kaşıkcı M, Çelik HT, et al. An artificial intelligence approach to support detection of neonatal adverse drug reactions based on severity and Probability scores: a new risk score as web-tool. Children. 2022;9(12):1826. doi:10.3390/children9121826

          SMARTen Up: Asthma Management Guidelines

          Learning Objectives

           

          After completing this application-based continuing education activity, pharmacists will be able to

          1.     Describe the pathophysiology and severity classifications of asthma
          2.     Identify the class, mechanism of action, place in therapy, and potential side effects of asthma therapies
          3.     Recall updates in the 2020 NHLBI Guideline Update
          4.     State what SMART Therapy is, why it was added to the asthma guidelines, and how to apply it to patient cases

          After completing this application-based continuing education activity, pharmacy technicians will be able to

          1.     List the basic symptoms and pathophysiology of asthma
          2.     Recall how patients are diagnosed with asthma and what the severities are.
          3.     Recognize common medications used for asthma
          4.     Explain SMART therapy and the pharmacy technician’s role in SMART

          drawing of lungs with the word ASTHMA ripped in the middle

          Release Date:

          Release Date: April 19, 2025

          Expiration Date: April 19, 2028

          Course Fee

          FREE

          ACPE UANs

          Pharmacist: 0009-0000-25-031-H01-P

          Pharmacy Technician: 0009-0000-25-031-H01-T

          Session Codes

          Pharmacist: 22YC23-ABC35

          Pharmacy Technician: 22YC23-CBA84

          Accreditation Hours

          2.0 hours of CE

          Accreditation Statements

          The University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy is accredited by the Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education as a provider of continuing pharmacy education.  Statements of credit for the online activity ACPE UAN 0009-0000-22-023-H01-P/T  will be awarded when the post test and evaluation have been completed and passed with a 70% or better. Your CE credits will be uploaded to your CPE monitor profile within 2 weeks of completion of the program.

           

          Disclosure of Discussions of Off-label and Investigational Drug Use

          The material presented here does not necessarily reflect the views of The University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy or its co-sponsor affiliates. These materials may discuss uses and dosages for therapeutic products, processes, procedures and inferred diagnoses that have not been approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration. A qualified health care professional should be consulted before using any therapeutic product discussed. All readers and continuing education participants should verify all information and data before treating patients or employing any therapies described in this continuing education activity.

          Faculty

          Melanie Collins, MD
          Co-Director, Asthma Center
          Connecticut Children’s Medical Center
          Hartford, CT

          Jessica Hollenbach, PhD, AE-C
          Co-Director, Asthma Center
          Connecticut Children’s Medical Center
          Hartford, CT

          Lindsay Sawtelle, PharmD Candidate 2022
          University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy
          Storrs, CT

          Faculty Disclosure

          In accordance with the Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education (ACPE) Criteria for Quality and Interpretive Guidelines, The University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy requires that faculty disclose any relationship that the faculty may have with commercial entities whose products or services may be mentioned in the activity.

          Dr. Collins and Dr. Hollenbach have no relationship with ineligible companies and therefore have nothing to disclose.

          Lindsay Sawtelle acts as a consultant for GSK but there are no conflicts of interest.

          ABSTRACT

          Asthma is one of the most common chronic diseases. Patients with asthma may have respiratory symptoms that affect their ability to breathe, daily activities, and quality of life. Understanding asthma and its pathophysiology, diagnosis, severities, and medications are pertinent to managing the disease.

          This continuing education activity describes the 2020 update to the Asthma Management Guidelines by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) expert panel recommendations. Single Maintenance and Reliever Therapy (SMART) is a guideline revision that impacts clinical practice significantly. Pharmacy personnel need to familiarize themselves with the guideline updates to navigate transformations in prescribing that will follow.

          CONTENT

          Content

          INTRODUCTION

          Let’s start this continuing education (CE) course with a story. A 13-year-old adolescent, Emily, had asthma exacerbations that were impacting her life. In addition to sitting out at her soccer games, she was having difficulty waking for school because her asthma exacerbations kept her up a few nights a week. Her physician prescribed a budesonide/formoterol (Symbicort) prescription for maintenance and reliever. When she and her mom went to pick up the prescription, their pharmacist told them this prescription was “inappropriate” and “dangerous” at the pick-up counter. This pharmacist likely frightened the patient and her mother. The patient would have been rightfully hesitant to take the prescription as the physician prescribed.

           

          Although the guidelines did not recommend using this combination for reliever and maintenance before 2020, the pharmacist was mistaken. This pharmacist didn’t know about new NHLBI guidelines for SMART therapy. This continuing education activity will explore a recent change to the asthma guidelines that helps aspiring soccer players like our Emily score a goal with their asthma. Staying up to date on guidelines is the only way pharmacists will keep their place as trusted healthcare professionals.

           

          BACKGROUND

          All pharmacy team members need to know about asthma because it is a common chronic disease in both children and adults. The Center for Disease Control (CDC) estimates that around 8% of the population has asthma. As a chronic disease affecting the airway and lungs, asthma is characterized by airway inflammation, bronchospasm, and mucus hypersecretion. These findings cause symptoms of difficulty breathing, wheezing, coughing, and chest tightness.1 Asthma’s symptoms can range from mild to severe and they fluctuate. Symptom worsening is called an asthma attack, flare, or exacerbation.2

           

          Asthma is often diagnosed in childhood but affects people of all ages. It is diagnosed more commonly in males during childhood, but its prevalence is equal in males and females by adulthood.1 Asthma seems to have a hereditary component, although many genes probably contribute to asthma.3 Family history and the presence of eczema are both risk factors for asthma.1 Other risk factors include exposure to environmental tobacco smoke, air pollutants, or allergens, such as pollen, dust, or workplace chemicals (see the SIDEBAR for information about household pests).1 Risk factors for asthma are often present in childhood. For example, exposure to cigarette smoke in the womb increases the probability infants will develop asthma. Young children with allergies or who have respiratory infections are also more likely to develop asthma.1

           

          Asthma Pathophysiology

          The bronchial tree is the branched system of cartilaginous tubes responsible for conducting gas to alveoli, the small air sacs that allow gas exchange, in the lungs. The word “tree” is an apt description because the lungs look like an upside-down tree, where the trachea is the trunk, and the bronchioles are the smallest terminal twigs. The bronchioles are the smallest bronchi and they facilitate gas exchange with alveoli, the air sacs in the lungs that exchange gas with the blood.4 Each layer of the bronchi has a smaller diameter than the one it stems from and has more smooth muscle fibers, just like the branches of a tree.5 Asthma primarily affects airways including the smooth muscle of the bronchi, where inflammation decreases the airway’s size, in turn increasing the work it takes to breathe.3

           

          In allergic asthma, an asthma exacerbation consists of an early phase and a late phase. IgE antibodies are responsible for the first phase.3 Environmental triggers cause plasma cells to release IgE antibodies, which bind to mast cells and basophils. Mast cells release cytokines, histamine, prostaglandins, and leukotrienes.3 Ultimately, smooth muscle contracts and the airway tightens, causing bronchoconstriction.6 Th2 lymphocytes sustain the inflammation by producing additional cytokines and maintaining the communication between cells.3 The late phase occurs over the next few hours as inflammatory cells localize to the lungs and cause bronchoconstriction and inflammation. The cells involved in this second phase include basophils, eosinophils, helper and memory T-cells, and neutrophils.3 These cells cause inflammation and further edema. Mucus worsens airway obstruction and difficulty breathing. Successful management of an asthma exacerbation requires recognition of both phases.

           

          Hyperresponsiveness of the bronchi is another mechanism of asthma’s pathophysiology. Hyperresponsiveness is excessive bronchoconstriction after inhalation of or exposure to triggers.7 Triggers can include smoke, exercise, emotion, cold temperatures, humidity, animals with fur, infections, and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.8-11 This mechanism of excessive inflammation involves histamine and increased free intracellular calcium that increases smooth muscle contractility.12 Disease severity and therapeutic intervention are related to bronchial hyperresponsiveness.

           

           

          Rodent and Cockroaches Sidebar13-15

          The prevalence of asthma is highest in developed countries, especially in urban areas. In urban areas, up to 1 in 4 children may have asthma. Urban areas increase the risk of exposure to cockroaches and rodents, increasing allergen sensitization in these areas, ultimately leading to asthma. Mouse Mus m 1, mouse urinary protein (MUP), rat N 1, and cockroach (Bla g 1 and Bla g 2) are the responsible allergen proteins. Tests have confirmed high levels of these proteins in houses, schools, and daycares in urban locations.

           

          Multifamily homes, high population density, lower socioeconomic status, and poor physical condition of buildings are all settings that foster cockroach and rodent infestation. Sensitization to cockroaches and rodents is associated with wheezing and severe asthma morbidity. Most research done to date has been in children.

           

          Like people, pests need food, water, and shelter to live. They prefer to live in dark and damp areas. Pest mitigation strategies can decrease the likelihood of exposure to rodent and cockroach proteins:

           

          • Do not leave food containers open or dirty dishes out in the open.
          • Do not leave pet food and water out overnight.
          • Clean regularly. Pick up garbage, crumbs, and clean liquid spills.
          • Use trash cans with lids, bags that resist breaking, and do not allow them to overflow.
          • Check for plumbing leaks and moisture problems and fix any issues right away.
          • Seal cracks and openings around doors, windows, and foundations.
          • Use bait gel in cracks and traps rather than pesticides.

           

          Structural changes occur in the airway due to chronic inflammation and airway muscle hyperreactivity. This is known as airway remodeling. An asthmatic bronchiole is narrower than a normal bronchiole. Increased swelling, chronic inflammation, and mucus buildup from persistent airflow obstruction cause the narrowing.3 The narrowing of the lumen disrupts the normal replication of epithelial cells, compromising the layer’s structure and function.16 The hyperresponsiveness of the bronchioles leads to hypertrophied smooth muscle, disrupting the basement membrane. Irreversible obstruction of airflow is a consequence of airway remodeling.12 Effective treatment of asthma can prevent or delay airway remodeling.

           

          ASTHMA DIAGNOSIS

          The first step in diagnosing asthma is a focused medical history and physical examination. Symptoms consistent with asthma include episodes of cough, wheezing, difficulty breathing, and chest tightness. It is also notable if these symptoms worsen at night and awaken the patient, as they did for our patient Emily.17 The physical exam may show use of accessory muscles when breathing, sounds of wheezing during normal breathing, increased nasal secretion with mucosal swelling, or atopic dermatitis/eczema.17 Noting patient allergies or a family history of asthma helps establish a diagnosis.

           

          Spirometry can be used to evaluate asthma and monitor disease severity; it can also be used to monitor response to therapy in patients aged 5 and older.  Of note, it is not common to find many five-year-olds who are capable of reliably performing the test.17 Spirometry measures the air a patient breathes in and out. Specifically, spirometry measures the forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1) and the forced vital capacity (FVC).18

          • FEV1: maximum amount of air a patient exhales in one second.
          • FVC: maximum amount of air exhaled when blowing out as fast as possible

           

          Comparing results against values normalized by age, height, weight, gender, and race is the only way to interpret them. An easy way to interpret results is based on the percent predicted; however, most pulmonologists now use z-scores to interpret spirometry.19 Physicians may have the patient repeat spirometry after taking a bronchodilator to evaluate for airway reversibility.

           

          Clinicians also use spirometry to evaluate if current therapy is controlling asthma effectively. The results of patients’ spirometry tests while on treatment guides doctors to increase or decrease the dose of asthma medications.18

           

          Airway hyperresponsiveness is measured using a methacholine test. The clinician uses spirometry to find the patient’s FEV1. The patient then uses a nebulizer and inhales increasingly larger doses of methacholine. The physician takes the FEV1 before and after each dose. The test is positive if the FEV1 drops 20% or more from the baseline FEV1. The test is negative if the maximum methacholine dose does not decrease the FEV1 by at least 20%.20 Regardless of asthma control and response to therapy, most people with asthma would have a positive methacholine challenge test.

           

          The 2020 NHLBI guideline update includes the conditional recommendation to use fractional exhaled nitrous oxide (FeNO) as a test to diagnose asthma.21 Nitric oxide (NO) is a gas produced by cells involved in inflammation. The higher the NO level, the more inflammation in the body. This test is plausible to use as an adjunct for patients aged 5 and older whose asthma diagnosis is uncertain using history, clinical course, and spirometry. Our patient in this CE case would not be a candidate for a FeNO test, as her asthma diagnoses are apparent without one. One should also note that most commercial insurances no longer cover this test.

           

          Asthma Severities

          The NHLBI classifies asthma as intermittent, mild persistent, moderate persistent, or severe persistent. Asthma symptoms before treatment determine the classification, but the patient’s classification may change over time. Patients are diagnosed with the asthma classification in which their most severe symptom falls.17 As you look at these classifications, think about Emily and decide where her asthma would fall.

          • Intermittent Asthma
            • Symptoms occur fewer than two days a week and do not interfere with normal activities
            • Nighttime symptoms occur fewer than two days a month
            • Lung function tests are normal when the patient is not having symptoms
          • Mild Persistent
            • Symptoms occur more than two days a week, but not every day. Attacks interfere with daily activities
            • Nighttime symptoms occur three to four times a month
            • Lung function tests are normal when the patient is not having symptoms
          • Moderate Persistent
            • Symptoms occur daily and interfere with daily activities
            • Nighttime symptoms occur more than once a week, but not daily
            • Lung function tests are abnormal
          • Severe Persistent
            • Symptoms occur daily and severely limit daily activities
            • Nighttime symptoms occur multiple times weekly
            • Lung function tests are abnormal

           

          The severity of asthma drives the treatment recommendations. Asthma classification can change over time. From our case, Emily likely has moderate persistent asthma. She is kept up a few times weekly by nighttime symptoms, interfering with her sleep. She also needs to sit out of soccer games and was having trouble in school due to her lack of sleep. Her symptoms limit her daily activities.

           

          Pause and Ponder: How would asthma attacks occurring nightly affect a patient’s quality of life?

           

          TREATMENT

           

          With the revision to the guidelines in 2020, several things have changed, and pharmacy staff need to be aware of the changes.

           

          Medications

          People can manage asthma with appropriate medications. Table 122-26 provides additional detail on the mechanism of action, pharmacology, and adverse events associated with preferred medications used to treat asthma. Inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) are the cornerstone of asthma therapy, and this has not changed with the updated guidelines, although use of biologic agents to control asthma is more prominent.23 ICS may be dosed once or twice daily but more often during symptomatic periods.24 Beclomethasone dipropionate, budesonide, ciclesonide, flunisolide, fluticasone propionate, and mometasone are all commonly used ICS.22 When dosed at equipotent doses, all corticosteroids are equally effective, but some individuals respond better to certain ICS than others.24 The dose of ICS can be titrated for symptom relief and spirometry response, but the dose response is relatively flat after moderate doses.25 A flat dose response is like continuing to eat when you are already full. When you are full, you likely have gotten all the calories you need from a meal, and now you are just increasing your chances of bellyache. Increasing the dose of ICS past moderate strengths does not continue to provide additional relief of asthma symptoms as before, and the risk of side effects increases. Some patients with severe asthma do escalate to high dose ICS.

           

          Table 1. Preferred Medications for Asthma Therapy22-26

           

          Medication Class Mechanism of Action Pharmacology  Adverse events
          ICS Inhibit production and release of signals allowing extravasation of immune cells into the airway. Decrease inflammatory response and airway hyperresponsiveness ·       1-2 Weeks of treatment for full effect

          ·       Goal is high pulmonary affinity with low systemic absorption

          ·       MDI vs. DPI may affect absorption

          ·       Metabolism and active metabolites may contribute to systemic effects

          Nasopharyngitis, headache, bronchitis, sinusitis, influenza, respiratory tract infection, back pain, toothache, abdominal pain, cough, oral candidiasis, rhinitis, and throat irritation
          Inhaled SABA

           

          Bind to beta-adrenergic receptors in the bronchiole. Ultimately leads to the relaxation of smooth muscle. The difference between short and long- acting agonists is the half-life. ·       Onset: Within minutes

          ·       Peak: 30 minutes

          ·       Bronchodilation: 4-6 hours

          Tremor, nervousness and insomnia in children, nausea, fever, bronchospasm, vomiting, headache, pain, dizziness, cough, dry mouth, sweating, chills, dyspepsia
          Inhaled LABA ·       Onset: 5-30 minutes

          ·       Peak: 15 minutes- 3 hours

          ·       Bronchodilation >12 hours

          Adverse events are same as short acting, but less likely. LABAs are more B2 selective and lipophilic, concentrating their effects in the lungs
          Inhaled SAMA Antagonize acetylcholine at muscarinic (M3) receptors, leading to decreased bronchoconstriction, mucus secretion and edema ·       Onset: Within 15 minutes

          ·       Peak: 1-2 hours

          ·       Bronchodilation: 6-8 hours

          Adverse events are related to systemic anticholinergic activity at all muscarinic receptors including urinary retention, dry mouth, headache, dizziness, sinusitis, dyspnea, back pain, cough
          Inhaled LAMA

           

          ·       Onset: 30 minutes

          ·       Peak: 3-4 hours

          ·       Bronchodilation: 12 to >24 hours

          B2: Beta-2 receptor, ICS: inhaled corticosteroids, DPI: dry powdered inhaler, LABA: long-acting beta agonist, LAMA: long-acting muscarinic antagonist, MDI: metered-dose inhaler, SABA: short-acting beta agonist, SAMA: short-acting muscarinic antagonist

           

          Patients use oral systemic corticosteroids for severe exacerbations or if they have a history of severe exacerbations or difficult-to-control asthma.21 Oral corticosteroids have many unfavorable adverse events that need to be considered by prescribing physicians.27 An increase in the release of cortisol from the adrenal glands through a negative feedback loop on the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis causes many of these adverse effects.27

          Systemic corticosteroid adverse events differ by duration of therapy27:

          • Short term: hyperglycemia, leukocytosis, mood alteration, sodium and fluid retention, increased weight gain, nocturnal enuresis
          • Long term: growth retardation, osteoporosis, skin thinning, impaired wound healing, bruising, cataracts, glaucoma, Cushingoid feature, increased weight gain, and immunosuppression

           

          ICS have little systemic absorption and are preferred for asthma control over oral corticosteroids. Patients taking higher doses of ICS have increased risk of systemic absorption and adrenal suppression. It is important to titrate to the lowest effective dose of ICS to avoid systemic absorption and adverse events. Corticosteroids have a dose-response relationship to adverse events.27 Clinicians must monitor for systemic side effects to determine the risk and benefit balance of both oral corticosteroids and ICS.

           

          While corticosteroids treat the inflammatory component of asthma, additional medications are needed to address airway hyperresponsiveness and can be either short or long-acting medications. “Quick-relief” and “relief” medications are common ways to refer to short-acting medications.22 Short-acting beta-agonists (SABAs) and inhaled short-acting muscarinic antagonists (SAMAs) are the two classes of relief medications. Patients use SABAs and SAMAs when experiencing symptoms or before exposure to triggers.

           

          SABAs are highly effective bronchodilators but have short durations of action.22 Typically, all patients with asthma are prescribed SABAs as a “relief” inhaler.22 Albuterol metered-dose inhalers (MDI) are the most used relief inhaler. Albuterol is dosed at one to two puffs every four to six hours as needed to control an asthma exacerbation.28 SABA use is changing in clinical practice. Newer research shows that SABAs are more effective when followed by an ICS.29 Even in patients with infrequent symptoms, a prescription for daily low-dose ICS reduces asthma symptoms and risk. Increased SABA use is associated with worse outcomes. A patient is at risk of severe asthma exacerbations and asthma mortality if they pick up three or more albuterol inhalers a year from the pharmacy, the equivalent of 1.6 puffs per day.29

           

          SAMAs can be used in place of SABAs but are less effective. SAMAs will be used if SABAs are not tolerated as relief therapy. Ipratropium is a commonly used SAMA. Emily, our patient in the CE case, does not have a SAMA prescription because she receives symptom relief when using albuterol. The APPENDIX describes the different types of inhalers and points that technicians can emphasize when patients pick up refills.

           

           

          Long-acting medications include long-acting beta-agonists (LABAs) and long-acting muscarinic antagonists (LAMAs). LABAs are never used alone in asthma therapy but are companions to inhaled corticosteroids (ICS).22 Patients should take these medications even when asthma symptoms are not present because they are maintenance therapy. All LABA medications have a boxed warning cautioning about the potential for severe asthma exacerbations. Some severe exacerbations, when using LABA monotherapy, have led to death.22 LABAs do not have the same association with severe exacerbations and death when used in a combination with ICS. Salmeterol and formoterol are the most frequently used LABAs.22 The two LABAs differ in their time of onset. Formoterol and salmeterol have an onset of 15 minutes and 45 minutes, respectively. Patients aged 6 and older can use tiotropium as an add-on LAMA in maintenance therapy.30 Table 228,30-46 gives an overview of the current inhaled therapies available in the US to treat asthma. You will find details about Emily’s long-acting therapy in the section where SMART is explained.

           

           

          Table 2. Asthma Inhalers 28,30-46

          Class Drug Brand Dosage Forms
          ICS Beclomethasone dipropionate QVAR Redihaler MDI
          Budesonide Pulmicort Flexhaler

          Generic

          DPI

          Nebulizer

          Ciclesonide Alvesco MDI
          Fluticasone propionate Flovent HFA

          Flovent Diskus

          Arnuity Ellipta

          Armon Air Digihaler

          MDI

          DPI

          DPI

          DPI

          Mometasone Asmanex HFA

          Asmanex

          MDI

          DPI

          SABA Albuterol ProAir

          Ventolin

          Proventil

          Generic

          DPI, MDI

          MDI

          MDI

          DPI, MDI

          Levalbuterol Xopenex HFA MDI
          LABA Formoterol Perforomist Nebulizer
          Salmeterol Serevent DPI
          SAMA Ipratropium Atrovent HFA

          Generic

          MDI

          Nebulizer

          LAMA Tiotropium Spiriva Respimat DPI

           

           

           

          Many patients require multiple medications for asthma management. Clinicians prescribe combination inhalers—inhalers that have two medications—to increase efficacy, patient adherence and ease of inhaler use. Patients experience less confusion about when and how to use their inhalers when using fewer products. Clinicians can assess patient adherence and correct use of medications when a patient is on combination products. With this information, clinicians can determine if the patient needs education or an increased medication dose. Table 3 47-52 shows the many combination products on the market.

           

          Think back to our case. This patient's prescription was for budesonide/formoterol. This therapy is an ICS and LABA combined therapy. The patient previously used a fluticasone inhaler once daily and albuterol as a relief inhaler. This new therapy would give the patient only one inhaler to control her asthma, avoiding inhaler confusion.  Also, as patients cannot exactly “feel” the inhaled corticosteroid inhaler making a “difference,” but patients can always feel a change with SABA/LABA therapy—the combination inhalers help patients to experience a positive effect while taking chronic medications.

           

           

          Table 3 Combination Products 47-52

           

          Budesonide/formoterol Symbicort MDI
          Fluticasone/salmeterol Advair DPI, MDI
          Fluticasone/vilanterol Breo Ellipta DPI
          Mometasone/formoterol Dulera MDI
          Budesonide/umeclidinium/ vilanterol Trelegy Ellipta MDI

           

           

          The 2020 NHLBI Guidelines for Asthma Management list the following medications as alternatives to the preferred therapies: leukotriene receptor antagonists (LTRA), cromolyn (Intal), theophylline, and immunotherapies. The guidelines list nedocromil (Tilade) as an alternative therapy, although the FDA has discontinued this medication. 21,53

           

          LTRAs include montelukast and zafirlukast. These medications antagonize the effects of pro-inflammatory chemicals called leukotrienes. LTRAs work to decrease the inflammatory component of asthma.22 Montelukast is indicated in patients aged 1 and older, is only dosed once a day, and does not have many drug interactions.54 Montelukast use is discouraged because of side effects and limited efficacy. Montelukast’s labeling includes a boxed warning because of potential neuropsychiatric adverse events.54

           

          Cromolyn is a nebulized solution approved for asthma prophylaxis. The approval is for patients aged 2 and older. It inhibits release of histamine and leukotrienes from mast cells.55

           

          Theophylline is an oral medication rarely used as maintenance therapy for asthma.  It has many side effects and requires titration via blood tests. It is a phosphodiesterase inhibitor and adenosine antagonist. Theophylline ultimately relaxes smooth muscles in the bronchial airway.22

           

          Immunotherapies are injectable monoclonal antibodies reserved for patients with severe and treatment-resistant asthma. Currently, omalizumab (Xolair) is the only biologic approved for asthma in patients as young as 4 years old. 21 The NHLBI 2020 guideline update does not contain specific recommendations for the use of biologics. The systematic reviews the panel examined to update the guidelines did not include the use of biologics. Anti-IgE (omalizumab), anti-IL5 (mepolizumab [Nucala], reslizumab [Cinqair]), anti IL5-R (benralizumab [Fasenra]), and anti-IL4 (dupilumab [Dupixent]) are other biologic treatments for asthma. Insurers typically require prescribers to document the patient’s allergen sensitization and phenotyping before approving immunotherapies. Patients will have to try other therapies and either be unresponsive or intolerant of them before trying biologics. Specialist supervision is needed.22

           

          Step Therapy Rationale

           

          The NHLBI Guidelines recommend a stepwise approach to the treatment of asthma. The recommendation guides initial asthma treatment based on the asthma severity and subsequent therapy if symptoms persist despite changes in asthma therapy.21 Table 4 represents a combination of the stepwise therapy recommendations across all age groups in the NHLBI Guidelines.21 For simplicity, the figure only shows the preferred medication recommendations. The full step therapy recommendations can be found in the full version of the NHLBI 2020 Update to the Asthma Management Guidelines.

          Table 4. Stepwise Approach to the Preferred Treatment of the Management of Asthma 21

           

          Intermittent Asthma Management of Persistent Asthma
          Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Step 6
          Individuals Ages 0-4 years
          PRN SABA

          Short daily course of ICS at the start of respiratory tract infection

          Daily low-dose ICS

           

           

           

          PRN SABA

          Daily medium-dose ICS

           

           

          PRN SABA

          Daily medium dose ICS-LABA

           

          PRN SABA

          Daily high-dose ICS-LABA

           

           

          PRN SABA

          Daily high-dose ICS-LABA + oral systemic corticosteroid

           

          PRN SABA

          Individuals Ages 5-11 years
          SABA Daily low-dose ICS

           

           

           

          PRN SABA

          Daily and PRN combination low-dose ICS-formoterol Daily and PRN combination Daily high dose ICS-LABA

           

           

          PRN SABA

          Daily high-dose ICS-LABA + oral systemic corticosteroid

           

          PRN SABA

          Individuals Ages 12+
          SABA Daily low-dose ICS and PRN SABA or PRN concomitant ICS & SABA Daily and PRN combination low-dose ICS-formoterol Daily and PRN combination medium-dose ICS-formoterol Daily high dose ICS-LABA

           

           

           

          PRN SABA

          Daily high-dose ICS-LABA + oral systemic corticosteroid

           

           

          PRN SABA

           

          In Step 1—which addressed patients with intermittent asthma—patients only use a reliever inhaler to control intermittent asthma symptoms, meaning the patients will only use an inhaler when experiencing symptoms or for pre-treatment before exercise. A clinician would initiate ICS therapy in a patient with mild asthma on Step 2.17 A patient with moderate asthma would start therapy on Step 3 or Step 4.17 A patient with severe asthma would start therapy on Step 5 or Step 6.17

           

          Once treatment has started, a clinician should reassess the patient every two to six weeks to ensure control of asthma symptoms.21 If symptoms persist and asthma is uncontrolled, this would be an appropriate time to step-up therapy. Questioning patients about how frequently they use their reliever inhalers, or how many times they forgot to take their inhaler in the past week may help guide clinicians.17 More frequent use of the SABA, including using a reliever inhaler more than two days a week, would favor stepping up therapy. Appropriate use of asthma inhalers is critical to achieving control. Adherence to the regimen and proper technique are required to determine if the patient is using the medication correctly.21 Pharmacists can play an integral role in educating patients in proper inhaler technique.

           

          Objective measures, like spirometry, can also be used to assess control. Improvements in spirometry readings indicate better control of a patient’s asthma.21 Increased healthcare utilization, like emergency room visits for an exacerbation, is another way to determine if a patient’s asthma is under control.17 An increase in patients’ healthcare utilization suggests poorly controlled asthma. Mitigating the risk of severe exacerbations is another goal of achieving good asthma control.17 Any patient on step 3 or higher should consult with an asthma specialist for treatment.21

           

          If a patient has well-controlled asthma after three consecutive months on a medication, the patient also may step down on therapy.21 A patient would always only go down one step of treatment. A clinician would schedule follow-up in the same two-to-six-week timeframe to ensure a patient still has asthma control.17 The benefit of stepping down therapy is to lower the patient’s systemic ICS and LABA dose exposure, decreasing the risk of potential adverse events.

           

           

          2020 NHLBI Asthma Management Guideline Updates

          The 2020 NHLBI Guideline update focused on six select topics: intermittent ICS (e.g. SMART), LAMAs, indoor allergen mitigation, immunotherapy in the treatment of allergic asthma, FeNO testing, and bronchial thermoplasty (BT). A major update to the guideline that is changing clinical practice is SMART.

           

          Time to be SMART

          The 2020 NHLBI Asthma Management Guidelines recommend SMART in patients with moderate persistent asthma ages 4 and older. Keeping a patient's current regimen would be appropriate if asthma symptoms are well controlled. SMART employs a single ICS+formoterol combination inhaler product dosed daily and as needed for asthma exacerbations. This is a significant change, and all pharmacy staff need to be aware of it! SMART medications are FDA-approved in patients 12 and older. SMART is recommended off label in children aged 4 through 11.

           

          Before the 2020 update, patients with moderate persistent asthma would be on Step 3 or Step 4 therapy. Therapy consisted of a daily ICS inhaler for maintenance and a SABA inhaler for relief—two separate inhalers. If a patient was uncontrolled on ICS, a physician added a LABA to the regimen. SMART potentially transitions patients from three inhalers to one inhaler. An ICS+LABA combination has never been a reliever option before; the only option was SABA. The drastic change in recommendations is why the pharmacist in the CE case, unaware of this change, was hesitant to fill the prescription. It is an extreme change in therapy and based on outdated information, and he was understandably uncomfortable.

           

          It would be reasonable to switch patients who are uncontrolled on their current regimens or have had an exacerbation in the past year.21 It is also reasonable to discuss with patients or families who want to streamline their treatment regimens or those with difficulty adhering to their current regimens. Patients with uncontrolled moderate asthma should switch to SMART on the same treatment step they are currently on before moving up. For example, Emily in the CE case was on Step 4 of the 2007 guidelines, a medium-dose ICS and a LABA.17 After being transferred to SMART, her regimen includes a medium-dose ICS-formoterol. This is Step 4 of therapy in the 2020 guidelines.

           

          Along with an ICS, formoterol, a LABA, is being used as the reliever component of the regimen. Using formoterol is entirely different than our previous approaches where SABAs and SAMAs were the reliever medications. Formoterol’s onset is two to three minutes.56 Its duration of action is up to 12 hours, creating quick and durable smooth muscle relaxation.56 Formoterol is also an ideal drug because patients can use it more than twice daily. The maximum dosage of formoterol varies by age. Each inhalation of SMART will deliver 4.5 mcg of formoterol. Patients aged 4 to 11 can use eight puffs of formoterol daily (36 mcg).21 Patients aged 12 and older can use twelve puffs of their inhaler per day (54 mcg).21

           

          The two ICS currently used in SMART inhalers are budesonide and mometasone.57 A patient using a SMART inhaler as needed will also receive the long-term anti-inflammatory effects of an ICS with each use. SMART therapy aims to provide enough long-acting preventive medicine when symptoms occur to prevent them from recurring.57

           

          This treatment will be prescribed as one to two puffs once or twice daily for maintenance with one to two puffs as needed every five to 10 minutes for asthma symptoms. Age, asthma severity, and ICS dose in the inhaler determine the dosage and frequency a clinician prescribes.21 Pharmacists should ensure the maximum puffs on a patient’s prescription do not exceed the limit for their age.

           

          SMART reduces asthma exacerbations and decreases healthcare utilization while increasing quality of life and asthma control.21 SMART therapy also decreases patients’ systemic corticosteroid use. Patients who decrease their use of oral corticosteroids and maintain lower doses of ICS reduce the risk of corticosteroid-associated adverse events.57

           

          SMART may make asthma treatment easier for patients and families. Patients appreciate this one inhaler approach with a single prescription to refill and pickup.57 Having a single inhaler decreases confusion about which inhaler is responsible for maintenance and reliever. It also ensures the patients always have the correct inhaler in their possession. SMART may be especially beneficial for patients who regularly skip their maintenance inhaler when they do not have symptoms.57 These patients rely on their reliever inhalers. With SMART, if patients only take their reliever inhaler, they still receive anti-inflammatory medication.

           

          Costs, insurance formulary considerations, and intolerance are all reasons SMART may not be appropriate for some patients.21 Patients who overuse their SABA reliever inhalers may not be good candidates for SMART. Some patients use their reliever inhalers when they are anxious or feel short of breath, even when this is not asthma related.57 These patients are at risk of receiving ICS doses that are too high. Patients who use ICS-salmeterol as their maintenance should not use it as SMART.21 Patients using both inhalers will expose themselves to higher and potentially dangerous LABA & ICS doses.

           

          Pharmacists are responsible for reminding patients to use only their maximum daily puffs and to contact a physician if their asthma symptoms require them to exceed this maximum. The pharmacist should also consider the supply a patient will need using the medication for both maintenance and relief doses. Patients may need to pick up multiple inhalers monthly for adequate supply.21

           

          Pharmacy technicians will prevent errors if they can recognize SMART. These prescriptions will contain directions for daily use and as-needed use in the same inhaler. An example prescription is budesonide/formoterol 80/4.5, inhale 2 puffs twice daily and 1-2 puffs every 4 hours as needed for asthma exacerbations (maximum 12 puffs daily). Current evidence only recommends formoterol as the LABA in SMART. Knowing this, a technician can be on the lookout for the look-alike sound-alike medication salmeterol in combination inhalers which are not safe to use for SMART. A patient on SMART therapy will likely need all other prescriptions for asthma therapy put on hold. Let’s emphasize this point: Patients with automatic refills of a SABA or other maintenance medication will be at risk of over-treatment if they continue to take their old inhalers with SMART. If a patient with a SMART prescription comes into the pharmacy, it is important for the technician to recognize this to help prevent medication errors.

           

          Pause and ponder: Who makes the ideal candidate for SMART therapy?

           

          Additional Guideline Updates

          Intermittent ICS21

          The NHLBI organized the recommendations for the use of intermittent ICS by age. This update includes SMART.

           

          The guidelines recommend that from birth to age 4, children with recurrent wheezing related to respiratory tract infections (RTI), not currently on asthma therapy and with no symptoms between infections should use a seven-to-ten-day course of daily ICS when the RTI begins.21 It recommends combining ICS with as-needed quick-relief SABA therapy. This recommendation aims to decrease exacerbations, systemic corticosteroid use, and healthcare utilization.21 Healthcare utilization declines when caregivers have clear instructions for initiating ICS.

           

          Individuals aged 4 to 12 with mild to moderate persistent asthma who are currently taking daily ICS should not increase their regular daily ICS dose for short periods.21

           

          Individuals aged 12 and older with mild persistent asthma have two preferred treatments recommended as Step 2 of therapy21: either a daily low-dose ICS and as-needed SABA or an as-needed SABA and ICS delivered concomitantly, one after the other.21 SMART therapy is the preferred treatment in patients with moderate to severe asthma in patients 4 and older.21

           

          LAMAs

          The 2020 NHLBI guideline update changed the recommendation for LAMA use in patients 12 years and older with asthma not controlled by ICS therapy. The next appropriate step is to add a LABA to ICS rather than a LAMA, unless the patient is unable to tolerate, has a contraindication, or has an adherence barrier to a LABA.21 A prescriber may still add a LAMA onto the ICS+LABA combination for improved symptom control and increased quality of life.21 A patient on ICS+LABA and LAMA will require the use of multiple inhalers.

           

          Indoor Allergen Mitigation

          Some patients have an identified allergen component of their asthma. Patients may use mitigation strategies like air purifiers, impermeable pillows, mattress covers, and HEPA filters to reduce their risk of allergen exposure.21 The 2020 NHLBI guideline update recommends patients use multiple mitigation strategies, as one strategy alone likely will not improve outcomes.21 The guideline recommends integrated pest management in patients' homes who are allergic and exposed to rodents and cockroaches.21 If an individual does not have an allergy to indoor substances, the 2020 Update does not recommend home mitigation strategies.21

           

          Immunotherapy in the Treatment of Allergic Asthma

          Immunotherapy includes subcutaneous immunotherapy (SCIT) and sublingual immunotherapy (SLIT). The 2020 NHLBI guideline update recommends SCIT as an adjunct treatment in patients with demonstrated sensitization to allergens, but not when patients are experiencing asthma symptoms or have severe asthma.21

           

          FeNO Testing

          The 2020 NHLBI guideline update recommends FeNO measurement in patients older than 4 years with an uncertain asthma diagnosis after a medical examination, complete history, and spirometry testing.21

           

          Bronchial Thermoplasty

          BT is a procedure that removes muscle tissue from the airway using heat. The benefits in this procedure are small, the risks are moderate, and long-term outcomes are uncertain.21 The 2020 NHLBI guideline update conditionally recommends against this procedure.21 Patients who may consider BT must have a risk-benefits conversation with their provider.

           

          Conclusion

          The update to the 2020 NHLBI Asthma Management Guidelines offers new guidance to clinicians treating patients with asthma. Patients need to go to the pharmacy and pick up their evidence-based treatment without unnecessary intervention—or incorrect and possibly frightening information—from the pharmacist. Pharmacists should expect to see prescriptions of ICS-formoterol written for SMART. The patient case in this CE is an avoidable situation. Staying up to date with the current guidelines is a pharmacists’ responsibility. Technicians should work with patients and pharmacists to put outdated medication prescriptions on hold to avoid further medication errors.

           

          Pharmacy Technician Sidebar: Education on DPI/ MDI/ Nebulizer

           

          Proper inhaler technique is an essential aspect of asthma control. It may seem like a silly statement, but there are different kinds of inhalers and devices. Each inhaler requires patients to use specific inhalation techniques that deliver medications effectively. Some patients may have multiple inhalers, complicating their regimen and increasing the chance for error. Understanding the different types of inhalers highlights the importance of pharmacist counseling for patients who use inhalers. Below are explanations of the differences between using, cleaning, and storing a metered-dose inhaler (MDI), a dry powder inhaler (DPI), and a nebulizer. Pharmacy technicians can point out that every inhaler has an information sheet where patients can find specific and additional instructions. Technicians should encourage patients to read them.

           

          DPI58

          The DPI contains preset doses of medications in powder form. The medicine is released into the airways with deep, fast breaths. The DPI may be easier than the MDI for patient use.  However, patients with really low lung function or small children may not be able to generate enough inspiratory flow to effectively get the medications. Patients do not need to coordinate breathing and using the inhaler with a DPI .

           

          • Instructions for use:
            • Open the cover. Hold the inhaler as shown on instructions.
            • Load a dose of medicine as shown in your instructions. Do not tip or shake the inhaler.
            • Stand or sit up straight.
            • Holding the inhaler away from your mouth, breathe out completely to empty your lungs.
            • Place the mouthpiece of the inhaler in your mouth. Close your lips around it to form a tight seal.
            • Take a fast, deep, forceful breath in through your mouth. Take as big of a breath as possible.
            • Hold your breath and count to 10.
            • Take the inhaler out of your mouth. Breathe out slowly.
            • If you need more than one puff, wait 1 minute between puffs. Repeat steps 2-8 for each puff.
            • When you finish close the cover. Store in a cool, dry place.
            • If the medicine is an inhaled corticosteroid, rinse your mouth with water and spit it out. This helps prevent infection.
            • Some multi-dose DPI have a built-in counter to tell you how many doses are left. When the counter gets to “0,” throw it away. Arrange your refill pick-up before it gets to 0.
          • Instructions to clean the DPI
            • Wipe the mouthpiece at least once a week with a dry cloth
            • Do not use water to clean to DPI

           

          MDI59

          The MDI is a canister of medication placed into an actuator inhalation mouthpiece. Every use of the MDI delivers the correct amount of medication.

          • Instructions for use:
            • Take off the cap, shake the inhaler. Prime the inhaler (if needed)
            • If a spacer* is used, place the inhaler in the rubber ring on the end of a spacer
            • Stand or sit up straight
            • Breathe out completely to empty your lungs
            • Place the mouthpiece in your mouth and close your lips around it to form a tight seal
            • While breathing in, press down firmly on the top of the canister to release one “puff,” or dose of medication. Take as big of a breath as possible, breathing in slowly for 3-5 seconds.
            • Hold your breath and count to 10.
            • Take the mouthpiece out of your mouth. Release your breath.
            • If you need more than one puff, wait 1 minute between puffs. Repeat steps 3-8 for each puff.
            • Put the cap back on the inhaler.
            • If the medicine is an inhaled corticosteroid, rinse your mouth with water and spit it out.This helps prevent infection.
          • Important cleaning instructions:
            • Do not put the medicine canister in water
            • Do not brush or wipe the inside of the inhaler

          A “spacer” is a tube or chamber that adds distance between the mouth and the canister of medication. The device increases the ease of administering medication.

           

           

          Nebulizers60

          Nebulizers change liquid medication into an aerosol. Nebulizers come in both home and portable sizes. Nebulizers need a power source. They plug into a wall, have chargers, or need batteries replaced. Nebulizers take longer to use than MDI or DPI. They are also more laborious to use and store.

           

          • Instructions for use:
            • Wash hands well.
            • Put together the nebulizer machine, tubing, medicine cup, and mouthpiece or mask as shown in instructions.
            • Put the prescribed amount of medicine into the nebulizer cup.
            • Place the mouthpiece in your mouth and close your lips around it to form a tight seal. If a child wears a mask, make sure it fits in snugly around the child’s face and covers their mouth and nose.
            • Turn on the nebulizer machine. You will be able to see a light mist coming from the back of the tube or from the mask.
            • Take normal breaths through the mouth until the medicine cup is empty or the mist stops. This should take about 10 minutes.
            • Take the mouthpiece out of your mouth (or the child’s mouth) and turn off the machine.
            • If the medicine is an inhaled corticosteroid, rinse your mouth with water and spit it out. This helps prevent infection. If a child uses a mask, wash the face as well.
          • How to clean and store:
            • After each treatment
              • Wash hands well.
              • Wash the medicine cup and mouthpiece/ mask with warm water and mild soap.
              • Do not wash tubing.
              • Rinse well and shake off excess water.
              • Air dry parts on a paper towel.
            • Once a week:
              • Disinfect nebulizer parts to help kill any germs. Use the instructions that come with your device.
              • Do not wash or boil the tubing.
              • Air dry parts on a paper towel.
            • Between uses:
              • Store nebulizer parts in a dry, clean plastic storage bag.
              • If the same machine is used by more than one person, keep each person’s medicine cup, mouthpiece or mask, and tubing in a separate, labeled bag to prevent the spread of germs and medication errors.
              • Wipe surface with a clean, damp cloth as needed.
              • Replace parts as stated in the instructions or when they appear damaged.

           

          Pharmacist Post Test (for viewing only)

          This test is for viewing purposes only. If you would like to submit the test, go to the blue button at the top of the page or  Test/Evaluation Site.

           

             
            1. Which of the following Ig antibodies are responsible for the early phase of allergic asthma?
            a. IgA
            b. IgD
            c. IgE

            2. The mother of a 7-year-old patient takes him to the physician because she is concerned that he has asthma. The patient has attacks of wheezing two to three times a week when at recess or playing in the neighborhood. He sits out and cannot seem to catch his breath. The doctor suspects the patient has mild persistent asthma. When the patient is sitting in the office, he has no symptoms. But the doctor still initiates therapy according to the NHLBI guidelines. What objective measure can the doctor use to monitor his response to ICS therapy?
            a. Total IgE
            b. Spirometry
            c. X-Ray

            3. A patient presents to the pharmacy with a prescription for mometasone/formoterol (Dulera). What is the class combination used in this inhaler?
            a. ICS/LABA
            b. ICS/LAMA
            c. ICS/SABA

            4. A 16-year-old patient presents to the pharmacist complaining of side effects she thinks are related to her tiotropium (Spiriva Respimat inhaler). Her symptoms include extreme dry mouth, headache, and dizziness. The pharmacist asks how she has been using the medication. The patient responds that she uses it twice daily and sometimes when she develops symptoms during the school day. Why is the pharmacist concerned?
            a. The patient is overusing her rescue inhaler.
            b. These side effects are not related to the therapy.
            c. She is using her tiotropium inhaler incorrectly.

            5. Match the drug product with the correct mechanism of action.
            a. Albuterol/agonist of beta-adrenergic receptors in the bronchiole leading to smooth muscle relaxation
            b. Budesonide/agonist of beta-adrenergic receptors in the bronchiole. Ultimately leads to smooth muscle relaxation
            c. Ipratropium/agonist of beta-adrenergic receptors in the bronchiole. Ultimately leads to smooth muscle relaxation

            6. A 14-year-old patient presents to the physician with worsening shortness of breath and night-time awakenings. She has uncontrolled-moderate persistent asthma. She reports adherence to her medications and uses her inhalers properly. The patient is currently on a medium-dose ICS maintenance therapy and a SABA for rescue. What does the 2020 NHLBI Guideline recommend?
            a. Transitioning the patient to SMART therapy
            b. Considering bronchial thermoplasty as an option
            c. Using an FeNO test to confirm the asthma diagnosis

            7. Select the statement that correctly summarizes the 2020 NHLBI Guideline Update for using immunotherapy in the treatment of allergic asthma.
            a. All patients with documented allergic asthma should consider SCIT.
            b. SCIT is recommended as an adjunctive treatment in select patients.
            c. SCIT is recommended in all patients with severe asthma.

            8. Tom is an 8-year-old boy with moderate asthma. Tom also has type 2 diabetes and autism. He has frequent asthma exacerbations at school, requiring inhaler use. Tom presents to the doctor because he has been using his albuterol rescue inhaler multiple times during the week. His physician plans to switch his current regimen to SMART. Which of the following is an advantage the patient will have when switching to SMART?
            a. Tom will not need to have an inhaler at school to control his exacerbations
            b. SMART therapy will help lower Tom’s blood glucose, helping his diabetes
            c. Tom will only need to use one type of inhaler, simplifying administration

            9. Select the best way to describe SMART therapy.
            a. A patient uses a single inhaler made of a SABA/formoterol for asthma maintence and rescue treatment.
            b. A patient uses a single inhaler made of an ICS/formoterol for asthma maintenance and rescue treatment.
            c. A patient only needs to use a single medication for asthma once a day

            10. Lily is 14-year-old girl who has uncontrolled, moderate persistent asthma. She is currently prescribed a medium dose ICS inhaler with a SABA for rescue. When the pharmacist asks how she takes her medications, Lily admits that she forgets to take her ICS most days. In the morning when she wakes up, she doesn’t have symptoms. This leads her to using her SABA around eight times weekly when symptoms occur. Which of the following is a benefit Lily will receive switching to SMART?
            a. When Lily forgets her maintence dose, she still receives the ICS anti-inflammatory benefits when using the rescue dose
            b. Lily will save money switching to SMART
            c. Lily would not benefit from switching to SMART. It would be dangerous for her to switch because she currently overuses her SABA.

            Pharmacy Technician Post Test (for viewing only)

            This test is for viewing purposes only. If you would like to submit the test, go to the blue button at the top of the page or  Test/Evaluation Site.

             

               
              1. Select the correct symptoms associated with asthma.
              a. Sore throat, cough, burning while running
              b. Wheezing, coughing, chest tightness
              c. Difficulty breathing, sore throat, pain in chest

              2. Which of the following can trigger asthma?
              a. Smoke
              b. Light
              c. Salt Water

              3. Allie has had worsening asthma over the past 15 years. She has not been great at taking her medications and her asthma has never been controlled. Allie has chronic inflammation and hyperreactivity. Allie has structural changes in her lungs that includes the narrowing of her bronchioles. Allie has non-reversible obstruction. What is the term for Allie’s structural changes in her lungs?
              a. Allie has airway remodeling.
              b. Allie has overreactive T-cells.
              c. Allie has overgrown mast cells.

              4. Tyler is a 7-year-old boy presenting to the physician with asthma. When asked about his symptoms, Tyler says they occur every day. Because of his symptoms, Tyler cannot play outside with his friends sometimes. When asked if his symptoms keep him up at night, Tyler guesses once or twice a week, but not every night. What severity of asthma does Tyler have?
              a. Mild Persistent Asthma
              b. Moderate Persistent Asthma
              c. Severe Persistent Asthma

              5. Select the correct test that a physician could consider performing to get objective diagnostic information on cooperative patients 5 and older with asthma.
              a. Chest X-ray
              b. FeNO
              c. Spirometry

              6. A patient is coming into the pharmacy to pick up a medication for her asthma. Which medication is she picking up?
              a. Budesonide/formoterol (Symbicort)
              b. Umeclidinium (Incruse)
              c. Glycopyrrolate (Seebri NeoHaler)

              7. Which of the following represents a preferred asthma medication in the 2020 NHLBI Asthma management Guideline Update?
              a. Montelukast
              b. Theophylline
              c. Budesonide/formoterol

              8. David is a 13-year-old boy presenting to the pharmacy to pick up his new inhaler to begin SMART. Which prescription below is a recommended SMART therapy?
              a. Fluticasone/salmeterol 250/50 mcg: Inhale 2 puffs two times daily and 1-2 puffs as needed (up to 12 puffs daily).
              b. Budesonide/formoterol 80/4.5 mcg: Inhale 2 puffs two times daily and 1-2 puffs as needed (up to 12 puffs daily).
              c. Budesonide/formoterol 80/4.5 mcg: Inhale 2 puffs two times daily

              9. Select the best way to describe SMART therapy.
              a. A patient uses a single inhaler made of a SABA/formoterol for asthma maintenance and rescue treatment.
              b. A patient uses a single inhaler made of an ICS/formoterol for asthma maintenance and rescue treatment.
              c. A patient only needs to use a single medication for asthma once a day

              10. A mom presents with her son with his new prescription for budesonide/formoterol with directions you recognize as SMART. The patient has been picking up his asthma inhalers at your pharmacy for years. What is a step you can take to ensure this patient transitions safely to SMART?
              a. Confirm with the mother if the other asthma inhalers should be put on hold.
              b. Tell the family about a boxed warning in the product labeling
              c. Ask the patient if you can refill the albuterol that appears to be due for a refill.

              References

              Full List of References

              References

                 

                1. National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute. Asthma. Updated 3 December 2020. Retrieved 9 March 2022, from https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/asthma
                2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Vital signs: asthma prevalence, disease characteristics, and self-management education: United States, 2001--2009. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2011 May 06;60(17):547-52.
                3. Sinyor B, Concepcion Perez L. Pathophysiology Of Asthma. [Updated 2021 May 9]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2022 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK551579/
                4. Chaudhry R, Bordoni B. StatPearls [Internet]. StatPearls Publishing; Treasure Island (FL): Jul 31, 2021. Anatomy, Thorax, Lungs
                5. Patwa A, Shah A. Anatomy and physiology of respiratory system relevant to anaesthesia. Indian J Anaesth. 2015 Sep;59(9):533-41.
                6. Liu MC, Hubbard WC, Proud D, Stealey BA, Galli SJ, Kagey-Sobotka A, Bleecker ER, Lichtenstein LM. Immediate and late inflammatory responses to ragweed antigen challenge of the peripheral airways in allergic asthmatics. Cellular, mediator, and permeability changes. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1991 Jul;144(1):51-8.
                7. Sterk PJ, Fabbri LM, Quanjer P, Cockcroft DW, O'Byrne PM, Anderson SD, Juniper EF, Malo JL. Airway responsiveness: standardized challenge testing with pharmacological, physical and sensitizing stimuli in adults. Eur Respir J 1993;6(Suppl 16):53–83.
                8. Grootendorst DC, Rabe KF. Mechanisms of bronchial hyperreactivity in asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Proc Am Thorac Soc. 2004;1(2):77-87. doi:10.1513/pats.2306025
                9. Vucević D, Radosavljević T, Mladenović D, Todorović V. Srp Arh Celok Lek. 2011;139(3-4):209-215. doi:10.2298/sarh1104209v
                10. D'Amato, M., Molino, A., Calabrese, G., Cecchi, L., Annesi-Maesano, I., & D'Amato, G. (2018). The impact of cold on the respiratory tract and its consequences to respiratory health. Clinical and translational allergy, 8, 20. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13601-018-0208-9
                11. Sturtevant J. NSAID-induced bronchospasm--a common and serious problem. A report from MEDSAFE, the New Zealand Medicines and Medical Devices Safety Authority. N Z Dent J. 1999;95(421):84.
                12. Doeing DC, Solway J. Airway smooth muscle in the pathophysiology and treatment of asthma. J Appl Physiol (1985). 2013 Apr;114(7):834-43.
                13. Lilly CM. Diversity of asthma: evolving concepts of pathophysiology and lessons from genetics. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2005;115 suppl:S526–S531.
                14. Sheehan, W. J., Rangsithienchai, P. A., Wood, R. A., Rivard, D., Chinratanapisit, S., Perzanowski, M. S., Chew, G. L., Seltzer, J. M., Matsui, E. C., & Phipatanakul, W. (2010). Pest and allergen exposure and abatement in inner-city asthma: a work group report of the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology Indoor Allergy/Air Pollution Committee. The Journal of allergy and clinical immunology, 125(3), 575–581. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2010.01.023
                15. Indiana Department of Environmental Management. Integrated Pest Management. [Fact Sheet]. Accessed 28 March 22, https://www.in.gov/idem/files/factsheet_ipm.pdf
                16. Kudo M, Ishigatsubo Y, Aoki I. Pathology of asthma. Front Microbiol. 2013 Sep 10;4:263.
                17. National Institutes of Health (2007). National Asthma Education and Prevention Program Expert Panel Report 3: Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma (NIH Publication No. 08–5846). Available online: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/asthma/index.htm.
                18. Irvin CG. Pulmonary function testing in asthma. UpToDate. Available at https://www.uptodate.com/contents/pulmonary-function-testing-in-asthma#H341135837. Accessed 3/9/2022.
                19. Johnson JD, Theurer WM. A stepwise approach to the interpretation of pulmonary function tests. Am Fam Physician. 2014;89(5):359-366.
                20. American Academy of Allergy Asthma & Immunology. Methacholine Challenge Test. Accessed 28 March 2022. https://www.aaaai.org/Tools-for-the-Public/Conditions-Library/Asthma/Methacholine-Challenge-Test
                21. National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute (2020). 2020 Focused updates to the Asthma Management Guidelines. Clinician’s Guide. (NIH Publication No. 20-HL-8141). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office
                22. Sharma S, Hashmi MF, Chakraborty RK. Asthma Medications. [Updated 2022 Feb 16]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2022 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK531455/
                23. Williams DM. Clinical Pharmacology of Corticosteroids. Respir Care. 2018;63(6):655-670. doi:10.4187/respcare.06314
                24. Phillips K, Oborne J, Lewis S, et al. Time course of action of two inhaled corticosteroids, fluticasone propionate and budesonide. Thorax 2004;59:26-30.
                25. Adams NP, Jones PW. The dose-response characteristics of inhaled corticosteroids when used to treat asthma: an overview of Cochrane systematic reviews. Respir Med. 2006;100(8):1297-1306. doi:10.1016/j.rmed.2006.04.015
                26. Ejiofor S, Turner AM. Pharmacotherapies for COPD. Clin Med Insights Circ Respir Pulm Med. 2013;7:17-34. Published 2013 Apr 25. doi:10.4137/CCRPM.S7211
                27. Pandya D, Puttanna A, Balagopal V. Systemic effects of inhaled corticosteroids: an overview. Open Respir Med J. 2014;8:59-65. Published 2014 Dec 31. doi:10.2174/1874306401408010059
                28. ProAir HFA (albuterol). Package insert. Teva Respiratory, LLC; 2016.
                29. Reddel HK, Bacharier LB, Bateman ED, et al. Global Initiative for Asthma Strategy 2021: Executive Summary and Rationale for Key Changes. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2022;205(1):17-35. doi:10.1164/rccm.202109-2205PP
                30. Spriva Respimat (tiotropium). Package insert Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc; 2017.
                31. QVAR (beclomethasone dipropionate HFA). Package insert. Teva Respiratory, LLC; 2014.
                32. Pulmicort Flexhaler (budesonide inhalation powder). Package insert. AstraZeneca; 2010.
                33. Alvesco (ciclesonide). Package insert. Sunovion Pharmaceuticals, Inc; 2012.
                34. Flovent HFA (Fluticasone propionate). Package insert. GlaxoSmithKline; 2010.
                35. Flovent Diskus (fluticasone propionate inhalation powder). Package insert. GlaxoSmithKline; 2014.
                36. Arnuity ellipta (fluticasone furoate inhalation powder). Package insert. GlaxoSmithKline; 2018.
                37. Armonair digihaler (fluticasone propionate). Package insert. Teva Pharmaceuticals; 2020.
                38. Asmanex HFA (mometasone furoate). Package insert. Merck & Co., Inc; 2014.
                39. Asmanex Twisthaler (mometasone furoate). Package insert. Schering Corporation; 2018.
                40. ProAir Respiclick (albuteral sulfate) inhalation powder. Package insert. Teva Respiratory, LLC; 2016.
                41. Ventolin HFA (albuterol sulfate). Package insert. GlaxoSmithKline; 2014.
                42. Proventil HFA (albuterol sulfate). Package insert. Merck & Co., Inc; 2012
                43. Xopenex HFA (levalbuterol tartrate) inhalation aerosol. Package insert. Sunovion Pharmaceuticals Inc; 2017.
                44. Performist (formoterol fumarate). Package Insert. Dey Pharma, L.P.; 2010
                45. Serevent Diskus (salmeterol xinafoate inhalation powder). Package insert. GlaxoSmithKline; 2006
                46. Atrovent HFA (ipratropium bromide). Package insert. BoehringerIngleim International GmbH; 2004.
                47. Symbicort (budesonide and formoterol fumarate dehydrate). Package insert. AstraZenexa; 2017
                48. Advair Diskus (Fluticasone propionate and salmeterol). Package insert. GlaxoSmithKline; 2008
                49. Advair HFA (Fluticasone propionate and salmeterol). Package insert. GlaxoSmithKline; 2017.
                50. Breo Ellipta (fluticasone furoate and vilanterol inhalation powder). Package insert. GlaxoSmithKline. 2019.
                51. Dulera (mometasone furoate and formoterol fumarate dihydrate). Package insert. Merck & Co., Inc.; 2015.
                52. Trelegy Ellipta (fluticasone furoate, umeclidinium, and vilanterol inhalation powder). Package insert; 2020.
                53. Federal Drug Agency. Phase-Out of CFC Metered-Dose Inhalers Containing flunisolide, triamcinolone, metaproterenol, pirbuterol, albuterol and ipratropium in combination, cromolyn, and nedocromil - Questions and Answers. Available at https://www.fda.gov/drugs/information-drug-class/phase-out-cfc-metered-dose-inhalers-containing-flunisolide-triamcinolone-metaproterenol-pirbuterol-0. Accessed 3/10/22.
                54. Singulair (Montelukast). Package insert. Merck & co., Inc; 2012
                55. Intal (cromolyn sodium inhalation solution). Package Insert. King’s Pharmaceuticals, Inc. 2003
                56. Anderson GP: Formoterol: pharmacology, molecular basis of agonism, and mechanism of long duration of a highly potent and selective beta 2-adrenoceptor agonist bronchodilator. Life Sci. 1993;52(26):2145-60. doi: 10.1016/0024-3205(93)90729-m.
                57. Fliesler N. SMART: A New approach to asthma Management. Boston Children’s Hospital. Available at: https://answers.childrenshospital.org/smart-asthma-inhaler. Accessed 12 March 2022.
                58. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute. (Updated 2021). How to Use a Dry Powder Inhaler. (NIH Publication No. 21-HL-8164). Retrieved from: https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/all-publications-and-resources/how-use-dry-powder-inhaler
                59. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute. (Updated 2021). How to Use a Dry Powder Inhaler. (NIH Publication No. 21-HL-8164). Retrieved from: https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/all-publications-and-resources/how-use-dry-powder-inhaler
                60. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute. (Updated 2021). How to Use a Nebulizer. (NIH Publication No. 21-HL-8163). Retrieved from: https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/all-publications-and-resources/how-use-nebulizer.

                LAW: Danger Behind the Counter?

                Learning Objectives

                 

                After completing this application-based continuing education activity, pharmacists and pharmacy technicians will be able to

                1. Identify the occurrence of errors in the pharmacy.
                2. Characterize the perception of the workplace by patients and pharmacists.
                3. Describe actions taken by regulatory agencies to improve the pharmacy workplace.
                4. Review the utilization of pharmacy personnel.

                Male pharmacist, surrounded by blister packs and pills bottles, appearing stressed on the phone looking over documents.

                Release Date:

                Release Date:  April 15, 2025

                Expiration Date: April 15, 2028

                Course Fee

                Pharmacists: $5

                Pharmacy Technicians: $2

                There is no grant funding for this CE activity

                ACPE UANs

                Pharmacist: 0009-0000-25-010-H03-P

                Pharmacy Technician: 0009-0000-25-010-H03-T

                Session Codes

                Pharmacist:  25YC10-FXE24

                Pharmacy Technician:  25YC10-EXF82

                Accreditation Hours

                1.5 hours of CE

                Accreditation Statements

                The University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy is accredited by the Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education as a provider of continuing pharmacy education.  Statements of credit for the online activity ACPE UAN 0009-0000-25-010-H03-P/T  will be awarded when the post test and evaluation have been completed and passed with a 70% or better. Your CE credits will be uploaded to your CPE monitor profile within 2 weeks of completion of the program.

                 

                Disclosure of Discussions of Off-label and Investigational Drug Use

                The material presented here does not necessarily reflect the views of The University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy or its co-sponsor affiliates. These materials may discuss uses and dosages for therapeutic products, processes, procedures and inferred diagnoses that have not been approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration. A qualified health care professional should be consulted before using any therapeutic product discussed. All readers and continuing education participants should verify all information and data before treating patients or employing any therapies described in this continuing education activity.

                Faculty

                Gerald Gianutsos, B.S. (Pharm), PhD, JD
                Emeritus Associate Professor of Pharmacology
                University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy
                Storrs, CT


                 

                Faculty Disclosure

                In accordance with the Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education (ACPE) Criteria for Quality and Interpretive Guidelines, The University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy requires that faculty disclose any relationship that the faculty may have with commercial entities whose products or services may be mentioned in the activity.

                Dr. Gianutsos has no relationship with ineligible companies and therefore has nothing to disclose.

                 

                ABSTRACT

                Pharmacists filled 6.7 billion prescriptions in 2022 while also engaging in a growing number of other health-related services. These duties have created a challenging workplace that threatens public safety. Recent media reports have focused attention on the pharmacy workplace environment and the risk of errors. This continuing education activity will review the factors contributing to workplace stress and errors and the efforts by regulatory agencies and pharmacists to address this growing problem.

                CONTENT

                Content

                “No one recognizes the level of stress they’re putting you under. You’re filling a prescription and the phone is ringing, saying, ‘One pharmacy call, two pharmacy calls, three pharmacy calls.’ I would stand there and feel the sweat come up the back of my neck.” - Pharmacist1

                 

                INTRODUCTION

                A recent survey found that more than half of United States (U.S.) consumers worry about potential problems with their prescriptions arising from inadequately staffed pharmacies.2 Half of consumers worry about receiving the wrong drug, the wrong dose, or the wrong instructions.2 Similarly, a 2024 study by the American data analytics, software, and consumer intelligence company J.D. Power found that overall patient satisfaction with pharmacies has declined, especially among chains, with only mail-order pharmacies showing an improvement in patient satisfaction.3 Only 51% of respondents said their pharmacist is trustworthy.3 The most significant problem areas emerging from the study are long wait times, lower levels of customer trust in pharmacists, and difficulty in ordering prescriptions.3 On a more positive note, 97% of American consumers agree that a pharmacist should have responsibility for informing them about the safety and/or effectiveness of their medications.2

                 

                It will probably come as no surprise to readers that pharmacists also report dissatisfaction with working conditions, particularly with issues of staffing, patient aggressiveness, and lack of meaningful communication between pharmacy personnel and management.4 The most commonly reported root causes for the disgruntlement were inadequate staffing, the use of performance metrics, and workflow design/policies.

                 

                Media reports have described pharmacists at chain pharmacies across the U.S. expressing concern that increased demand for prescriptions, vaccines, and other services are occurring without sufficient staff to fulfill those activities, making it nearly impossible for pharmacy staff to do their jobs properly or safely.5 A national survey released in 2022 showed that nearly 75% of pharmacist respondents felt they did not have enough time to safely perform clinical duties and patient care. Nearly two-thirds disagreed with the statement that “employer policies facilitate my ability to safely perform patient care/clinical duties.”6 The report also found that three-quarters of pharmacists rated their workload as high or extremely high and that job satisfaction was at the lowest point in 20 years.6

                 

                Has the modern community pharmacy become a danger to the public? This continuing education activity will examine the current sentiment about the pharmacy workplace, and the perceived risk associated with the current working conditions. It will also review legal and policy changes enacted or contemplated by pharmacists, regulatory bodies, and patients to improve the environment.

                 

                THE PHARMACY ENVIRONMENT

                In 2022, 6.7 billion prescriptions were dispensed in the U.S., a more than 50% increase from the nearly 4 billion prescriptions dispensed in 2009.7 Some pharmacists may feel that they filled that many by themselves.

                 

                Currently, almost 70% of people in the U.S. between 40 and 79 years old take at least one prescription drug; 20% take five or more.8 In addition to prescriptions, between February 2020 and September 2022, pharmacy staffs administered more than 270 million vaccines, including more than half of all COVID-19 vaccines given in the U.S.9 Community pharmacy teams alone accounted for approximately 45% of the total, including more than 8 million COVID-19 vaccines for long term care residents. Pharmacy staffs also provide more than 50 million influenza vaccines per year, supply in excess of 42 million COVID tests, and prescribe and dispense many antiviral medications.9 Interventions by pharmacy staffs during this period is conservatively estimated to have averted more than 1 million deaths, 8 million hospitalizations, and saved $450 billion in healthcare costs.9

                 

                While these data, highlighting pharmacists’ value, should engender a deserved sense of pride, as the opening quote illustrates, pharmacists are also are feeling stress over their workload. Pharmacists interviewed by the Chicago Tribune and the New York Times reporting on pharmacy errors related that they felt flabbergasted by pressures at the workplace to work quickly and meet quotas.10,11 As a result, a chief executive of a state pharmacy association noted that the number of complaints from members related to staffing cuts and worries about patient safety had become “overwhelming.”12 Similarly, a survey conducted by the California State Board of Pharmacy found that 91% of chain pharmacists indicated that they lacked the staff needed to ensure adequate patient care.13 The Kansas Board of Pharmacy found similar results with more than half of pharmacists polled responding that they didn’t feel they could perform their jobs safely.13 The biggest reasons cited were a lack of adequate staffing and employer-imposed metrics, such as filling a specific number of prescriptions a day or providing service to patients within a set time.13

                 

                These added pressures are consistent with a reduction in the number of pharmacies. Chain pharmacies in particular have been reducing staffing levels and closing pharmacies while simultaneously burdening workers with additional duties.13 Staff who do not fill prescriptions or answer the phone fast enough or fail to solicit enough vaccinations reportedly may face discipline, reassignment, or termination.13 A former pharmacy school Dean likened the current working environment to the equivalent of a fast-food operation where workers feel pressured to race through every order.13

                 

                PAUSE AND PONDER: How has your job stress changed in the last few years? Have you seen errors in the workplace?

                 

                Consumers are also noticing problems or at least expressing a lack of confidence in pharmacists' attention to detail and public safety. Their concerns are not unfounded. A recent systematic review of 62 studies reported a pooled prevalence of dispensing errors across community, hospital, and other pharmacy settings of 1.6%.14 [It is difficult to accurately determine error rates due to differences in how studies are conducted, the definition of “error,” and other factors. Consequently, error rates vary widely among different studies. However, a generally accepted reasonable estimate of dispensing errors is approximately 1% to 2%.15-17 This would represent approximately 67 to 134 million errors each year at the current prescription volume!]

                 

                Many factors may contribute to the occurrence of medication errors. An error may occur at any stage of therapy, including prescribing, transcribing, identifying the product, counseling, use by the patient, or monitoring. Errors can occur across all practice settings.17 Errors may result from an act of commission (e.g., dispensing the wrong drug or dose) or omission (e.g., failure to properly counsel a patient).18,19 According to the Academy of Managed Care Pharmacy, the most common dispensing errors are dispensing an incorrect medication, dosage strength, or dosage form; miscalculating a dose; and failing to identify a drug interaction or contraindication.18 Medication errors can cause a range of undesirable outcomes including adverse drug events (dangerous and unintended events), hospitalization, and even death.17

                 

                What’s Workload Got to Do with It?

                A few lines of evidence suggest that errors may be associated with workload. Numerous studies have described a relationship between prescription volume and errors.20-22 A survey of pharmacists in Texas in 2001 found that the estimated risk of errors was positively related to the number of prescription orders filled per hour.20

                 

                Other studies found that as prescription volume increased beyond 20 to 24 per hour, the number of errors increased significantly.20-22 An earlier analysis by a prominent researcher also concluded that the rate of pharmacists’ errors increases after they fill more than 24 prescriptions an hour.23

                 

                The potential for errors is no surprise to pharmacists.12 One pharmacist reportedly wrote an anonymous letter to his State Board of Pharmacy saying, “I am a danger to the public working for (chain pharmacy).”12

                 

                Not only is the volume of prescriptions filled by a typical pharmacist a concern for its impact on the risk of errors, but the danger is aggravated by some pharmacy chains’ implementation of time guarantees, promising patients that prescriptions will be filled quickly.1,12 While the guarantee should provide a benefit to the busy consumer, it is also a safety concern, since the haste to fulfill the guarantee may make it more likely that a medication error may occur. As one pharmacist interviewed by the New York Times wrote, “Metrics put unnecessary pressure on pharmacy staff to fill prescriptions as fast as possible, resulting in errors.”12 One study of 49 community pharmacists, that had a robust response rate of 90.9%, found that the second most frequent source of error was “patient in a hurry.”24

                 

                The former Dean quoted above also believes that “at … the huge pharmacies, errors are a cost of doing business.”13 One chain store pharmacist told a reporter that she was reprimanded for taking too long to verify prescriptions, even though her extra diligence had caught several serious mistakes.13

                 

                The major chains have made changes to address the pressures on pharmacists and promote a “better work-life balance” according to one chain spokesperson.13 Most now provide half-hour lunch breaks for staff and some have reduced pharmacy hours.13 However, pharmacists report that their workloads remain the same and that they are pressured to work through lunch or stay late to finish their tasks.13 Moreover, pharmacists report that when their hours were cut, they saw a corresponding decrease in their salary.13

                 

                PAUSE AND PONDER: What could be done to reduce workplace stress at your pharmacy?

                 

                PHARMACY DESERTS

                Pharmacists are not the only ones strained when pharmacies close; it also increases the burden on patients who are left without easy access to pharmacies and their medications. This phenomenon, referred to as “pharmacy deserts,” creates disproportionate consequences for certain communities, notably in areas of patients with high levels of social vulnerability.25 Poor access to pharmacies is often associated with lower medication adherence.25

                 

                A pharmacy desert may be defined as a low-income urban area with no pharmacy within a mile radius for those with adequate vehicle access or half a mile for those with limited vehicle access. In rural areas, it refers to areas without an available pharmacy within a 10-mile radius for those with access to transportation.26

                 

                The number of retail pharmacies in the U.S. declined by almost 4% (from 63,218 to 60,755) between 2018 and 2023.27 The decrease was larger (5.9%) in rural communities. During the five-year period, 184 rural communities lost all of their retail pharmacies (although 195 rural communities gained retail pharmacies). The majority of the pharmacy losses in rural communities were among independent pharmacies.27 Pharmacy closures were also more common in Black and Hispanic/Latino neighborhoods putting a further strain on health care accessibility in these communities.25

                 

                EFFORTS TO CHANGE THE WORKPLACE

                Recognition that the pharmacy workplace can contribute to staff burnout and risks to the public is growing. This has resulted in different types of reactions among various groups with the goal of improving the work environment.

                 

                Action By Pharmacists

                Some pharmacists who have been adversely affected by the current working environment have responded. One action that pharmacists have taken is work stoppage with dozens and, at least in one case, hundreds of pharmacy personnel in chain stores calling out of work to protest working conditions.5 The pharmacists maintained that the increased focus on vaccinations added to their workload and made it more difficult for them to carry out their other duties and created a potentially unsafe condition. One pharmacist claimed that the chain has “turned into a vaccination clinic first and a pharmacy second” and added that “because immunizations are so profitable, filling prescriptions is almost an afterthought.”5 In at least one instance, pharmacist organizers planned to stage a multi-day nationwide walkout, termed “Pharmageddon,” to protest unsafe working conditions.28

                 

                PAUSE AND PONDER: Under what conditions would you be supportive of pharmacists striking for better working conditions?

                 

                Action By Regulatory Agencies

                Governmental and professional organizations that oversee the pharmacy profession have also become concerned with potentially unsafe conditions existing in the nation’s drugstores and have taken steps to change the workplace environment.

                 

                If a pharmacy staff member commits an error, a State Board of Pharmacy may take disciplinary action, but the application of the action differs among the states.29 In the typical situation, the Board will learn of the incident when a patient or caregiver files a complaint, which the Board is obligated to investigate.29,30 Most states do not have specific rules or regulations that specify that errors are actual regulatory violations, and most determinations are made on a case-by-case basis.30

                 

                The most common types of punitive action include license suspension, probation, or revocation, and fines.30 In a few states, incarceration is also a possible punitive action.30 The most common bases for dispensing punitive action were to address public safety/health concerns and public complaints. At least two states (Maryland and Massachusetts) appear to take a nonpunitive approach, with a focus on system wide improvements rather than individual responsibility, and with punitive action reserved for pharmacists deemed incompetent.30

                 

                A majority of state boards do not require pharmacies to report errors, and most investigations focus on pharmacists, not the conditions in their workplaces.12 Some boards have instructed pharmacists in public meetings to quit or speak up if they believe conditions are unsafe. However, many pharmacists fear retaliation, knowing they could easily be replaced for doing so.12

                 

                Pharmacists have also reported that errors are not consistently disclosed, even internally.13 These pharmacists claim that small mistakes and those discovered early are routinely hidden or remain unreported especially by pharmacists who have previously made an error.13  One California chain pharmacist believes that "for every error that gets found out, there will be an error that never gets caught."13 Pharmacists also say that even when they do report potentially fatal errors, no one from their companies investigates how they occurred or makes changes to prevent them from repeating.13 Obviously these actions put the pubic at risk.

                 

                PAUSE AND PONDER: Should the reporting of pharmacy errors to a regulatory body be mandated?

                 

                Many pharmacy organizations have advocated for workplace changes to reduce the number of errors, including the elimination of prescription time guarantees.16 The American Pharmacists Association approved a resolution in 2018 which “encourages the adoption of patient-centered quality and performance measures that align with safe delivery of patient care services, and opposes the setting and use of operational quotas or time-oriented metrics that negatively impact patient care and safety.”4

                 

                Similarly, the trade group The National Pharmacists Association, advocated for pharmacist dispensing limits more than 30 years ago as a means to promote safety. They recommended that a pharmacist fill no more than 15 prescriptions an hour.23

                 

                The former Dean says, “I don’t think the boards of pharmacy or the colleges of pharmacy or the professional associations are doing enough to address the issues.”13 However, in one recent event, the Nevada Board of Pharmacy fined and suspended the licenses of two pharmacists who mistakenly provided a pregnant woman with misoprostol instead of the fertility treatment she was prescribed.13 The Board also fined their chain pharmacy employer $10,000. However, the pharmacy’s lawyer objected to the fine saying they did nothing wrong, saying that “the only allegation” against the employer “is that they had these pharmacists.”13

                 

                Trends in State Intervention

                Traditionally, state pharmacy boards and other regulatory bodies have considered sanctions after errors have occurred but have generally refused to intervene over workload complaints.13 They have seen their role as protecting consumer safety, not to intrude on what has been regarded as business decisions such as staffing metrics and workload.13 However, this stance has been changing.

                 

                As early as 2017, the Chicago City Council approved legislation that would limit pharmacists to filling a maximum of 10 prescriptions per hour and also required a 30-minute meal and two 15-minute bathroom breaks for pharmacists working at least a 7-hour shift.31 A pharmacy also would need to schedule at least 10 pharmacy technician hours per 100 prescriptions filled. The proposal came in response to an investigation by the Chicago Tribune which found that 52% of local pharmacies tested failed to warn a member of the investigative team of potentially serious or fatal drug interactions when presented with a pair of prescriptions.31

                 

                A few years later the state of Illinois went further, passing notable changes to their Pharmacy Practice Act in 2020 after the Tribune's undercover investigation.31 The Act prohibits a pharmacy from requiring staff to work more than 12 continuous hours, including breaks, per day. This applies to pharmacists, pharmacy technicians, and student pharmacists. It also requires at least one uninterrupted 30-minute meal break and another 15-minute break for a pharmacist working six or more continuous hours per day.32 The pharmacist may not work more than five continuous hours before being given the opportunity for a meal break and must be given access to a private break room if one is available.32

                 

                The regulation permits the pharmacy to close during the break period but does not require closure. The pharmacist must be available for emergencies if the pharmacy remains open. Technicians and other authorized support staff may continue to perform normal duties while the pharmacist is on break, except for duties that require a pharmacist’s professional judgment. Prescriptions that have received final verification by a pharmacist and do not require counseling may be dispensed during the break period.32 If a mandated break period is not provided, the pharmacy must pay the pharmacist three times the pharmacist's regular hourly rate of pay for each workday with no break.

                 

                The Tribune’s investigation also prompted Illinois Senator Richard Durbin to call for nationwide policies to protect consumers, including asking the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) to determine the prevalence of the problem and to provide guidance to pharmacy boards. He also asked the CDC to examine how workload, company performance metrics that track prescriptions, and the length of time consumers wait for prescriptions may impact patient safety and pharmacist errors.33

                 

                Many years earlier (2007), North Carolina had passed a law restricting a pharmacist’s workday to no more than 12 continuous hours and required breaks for a shift of six hours or more.31

                 

                Other states have also considered regulations to reduce pharmacy stress, although many face opposition from employers. Minnesota is also considering a bill to require bathroom and meal breaks after pharmacists complained that they were afraid to drink liquids during a shift because they might not be able to get to the bathroom.31 New Hampshire also has enacted a rule permitting a 30-minute break for pharmacists who work more than eight hours. The new rule took more than four years to be implemented due to opposition from the pharmacy industry.31

                 

                The South Carolina board has discussed how to investigate conditions more thoroughly after a mistake. It also published a statement discouraging quotas and encouraging “employers to value patient safety over operational efficiency and financial targets.”31

                 

                PAUSE AND PONDER: Do you think that mandated breaks are beneficial in increasing safety in the pharmacy?

                 

                California recently instituted workplace regulations that go even further. The “Stop Dangerous Pharmacies Act” enacted in 2024 allows the pharmacist in charge (PIC) to make staffing decisions “to ensure sufficient personnel are present in the pharmacy to prevent fatigue, distraction, or other conditions that may interfere with a pharmacist’s ability to practice competently and safely.”35 The California Board of Pharmacy estimates that pharmacists make 5 million errors in the state per year, prompting the need for workplace changes.36 If the PIC is not available, a pharmacist on duty may adjust staffing according to workload if needed.35 The pharmacist on duty may also close the pharmacy if, in their opinion, staffing at the pharmacy is inadequate to provide patient care in a safe manner.37

                 

                In addition, a chain community pharmacy is required to be staffed at all times during normal business hours (defined as 8:00 am to 7:00 pm) with at least one clerk or pharmacy technician fully dedicated to performing pharmacy-related services.35 This requirement is waived if the pharmacy’s average daily prescription volume is less than 75 prescriptions per day. However, the exemption does not apply if the pharmacist is also expected to provide additional pharmacy services such as immunizations or tests.35 The new regulations also expanded duties that can be performed by a technician including accepting prescription transfers and clarifications of prescriptions.35

                 

                California also prohibits chain pharmacies from establishing a quota related to the duties for which a pharmacist or pharmacy technician license is required.38 (A quota is defined as “a fixed number or formula related to the duties for which a pharmacist or pharmacy technician license is required, against which the chain community pharmacy or its agent measures or evaluates the number of times either an individual pharmacist or pharmacy technician performs tasks or provides services while on duty” and includes prescriptions filled and “services rendered” to patients.38)

                 

                However, California and other states have found that enforcing these rules is challenging.13 The California State Board of Pharmacy, for example, is coping with routine violations by retail pharmacies that then fail to provide records to inspectors seeking to verify complaints.13

                 

                Oklahoma also recently established rules to ensure adequate staffing levels.39 Pharmacists are expected to complete a form whenever they are concerned about inadequate staffing due to inadequate number of support personnel or excessive workload. Each pharmacy must review completed staffing reports and address any issues listed and document any corrective action taken or justification for inaction. The reports must be made available to the Board during inspections. There is also a prohibition against disciplinary action or retaliation against the pharmacist filing the report.39

                 

                Virginia also passed temporary emergency regulations banning production quotas and increasing staffing in late 2024.13 Other states, including West Virginia, New York, and Illinois have attempted to pass legislation similar to California’s prohibition of the use of quotas for duties performed by pharmacists or technicians, but the legislation failed to pass.36

                 

                The Ohio Board of Pharmacy also took steps to address the pharmacy staffing shortage with new rules in 2024.40 One new rule requires pharmacies to “ensure sufficient personnel are scheduled to work at all times in order to minimize fatigue, distraction, or other conditions which interfere with a pharmacist’s ability to practice with reasonable competence and safety.” It also calls for staffing levels to be based on “other requirements” related to the practice of pharmacy and not solely based on prescription volume and also bans the use of “quotas” for “ancillary services.” (Quotas are defined as “a fixed number or formula related to the duties of pharmacy personnel, against which the pharmacy or its agent measures or evaluates the number of times either an individual performs tasks or provides services while on duty.”40)

                 

                To alleviate burnout that can lead to mistakes filling prescriptions, Ohio’s new rules will require that all pharmacies give all employees working six hours or more an uninterrupted 30-minute break.40 The pharmacy does not need to close during the break if the pharmacist remains on the premises and prescriptions may still be sold but the recipient must be provided with an offer to counsel. A person who wishes to speak with a pharmacist must be told that the pharmacist is on break and that they may wait to speak with the pharmacist or provide a telephone number for contact after the break.

                 

                Significantly, the new rules require pharmacies to develop a formal system so pharmacists can request additional staff. They also require pharmacy owners to act promptly on those requests and prohibit owners from retaliating against pharmacists who request extra help. A written response to the request must occur within 14 business days and a copy of the response must be maintained in the pharmacy for three years for inspection by the Board.40

                 

                Ohio’s Board also reacted to patients reporting delays in receiving their medication.41 The new rules require new prescriptions to be filled within three business days and those subject to auto refill to be done within five.40 (The rule has exemptions for shortages, delays in insurance coverage, and where the prescription requires clarification or raises suspicion about its safety or validity.40)

                 

                Pharmacy chains opposed the new rules.13 One chain wrote that the “Board should stay focused on the regulation of the practice of pharmacy rather than the business of pharmacy.”13 Chain representatives acknowledged the challenges their pharmacists have faced but denied allegations of unsafe working conditions. They claimed that metrics based on measurable objectives such as quick prescription turnarounds, short telephone hold times, and vaccination volumes are standard within the industry and meant to assess quality rather than penalize staff.13

                 

                Another effort to reduce errors being considered by some states is mandatory error reporting.37 Pennsylvania requires healthcare facilities to report all incidents of harm and may be the only state currently doing so.37 In Canada, Nova Scotia became the first jurisdiction to implement a requirement for community pharmacies to anonymously report medication incidents to a national repository in 2010 and several other Canadian provinces have followed.42 The stated purpose of the repository is to improve medication safety in the community through evidence-informed recommendations for reducing preventable harm related to medications.42

                 

                Another approach to reduce errors in the pharmacy is to free up the pharmacist from certain traditional tasks by placing greater reliance on technicians. A formalized program is termed tech-check-tech (TCT) and enables a trained pharmacy technician to perform the final verification on a prescription for which the pharmacist has previously performed the prospective drug utilization review.43 The TCT concept dates back to at least 1978 and has been well validated in institutional pharmacy settings.44 Studies have found that technicians perform at least as well as pharmacists in final verification activities in institutional settings and have demonstrated that utilization of technicians in this way allows pharmacists to devote one to five more hours per day to direct patient services.43,44 While this expanded role for technicians is becoming common in institutional settings, few states have adopted it for use in the community pharmacy.43

                 

                PAUSE AND PONDER: In your workplace, what additional tasks could certified technicians perform?

                 

                SUMMARY

                To err is human, and pharmacy staff will make errors despite their best efforts. Errors can occur at any step during prescription processing. The error rate is not well validated due to many methodological variables, and estimates vary widely although 1% to 2% is a commonly accepted value. However, even at these low rates, the number of patients affected is large and the consequences, although usually minor, can be catastrophic. Pharmacy staffs, of course, do not want to commit errors and removing the triggers for errors is a worthy goal. Evidence supports the concept that workplace pressures and insufficient staffing, high prescription volume, and interruptions and distractions exacerbate the risk of errors. The trend towards reducing the number of pharmacies while expanding pharmacy services has added additional strains to the health care system. Patients have become more aware of the risks associated with the pharmacy environment and burnout. This has also lessened the public’s perception of pharmacists.

                 

                Concerns over errors have spurred a growing number of states to revise their Pharmacy Practice Acts to relieve some of the workload pressure on pharmacists. Typical changes include limits on the length of the workday, mandated breaks, limits on the number of prescriptions a pharmacist can dispense over time, and reconsideration of tracking metrics. However, these changes have encountered resistance by employers and implementation and enforcement are spotty. Other changes include expanding the use of technicians and allowing more time for pharmacists to provide services related to patient care. It remains to be seen whether more regulatory oversight of the workplace will impact the number of errors committed. In the meantime, pharmacists and technicians should be extra vigilant to avoid being the object of the next media investigation that casts the profession in a bad light and hope they do not become “a danger to the public.”

                Pharmacist & Pharmacy Technician Post Test (for viewing only)

                Law: Danger Behind the Counter?
                Post-Test
                Learning Objectives
                After completing this continuing education activity, pharmacists and pharmacy technicians will be able to
                1. Identify the occurrence of errors in the pharmacy
                2. Characterize the perception of the workplace by patients and pharmacists
                3. Describe actions taken by regulatory agencies to improve the pharmacy workplace.
                4. Review the utilization of pharmacy personnel.

                1. A study by J.D. Power in 2024 evaluated overall patient satisfaction with pharmacies. What percentage of respondents said their pharmacist is trustworthy?
                A. About half
                B. 75%
                C. Nearly all

                2. A recent poll in California asked pharmacists about their workplace environment. What did the results show?
                A. Most pharmacists are completely or almost completely satisfied with their work-life balance.
                B. Most pharmacists felt that management is responsive to their concerns about workplace stress.
                C. Most pharmacists felt that pharmacy staffing was inadequate to ensure patient care.

                3. Estimates of the frequency of pharmacy errors are inconsistent. Regardless, what is a generally accepted rate of errors?
                A. 1 per thousand
                B. 1-2 %
                C. 5%-10%

                4. One source of pharmacy stress is the added responsibility of administering vaccines. What proportion of COVID vaccines did pharmacy staffs administer during the pandemic?
                A. 25%
                B. 40 %
                C. More than 50%

                5. Harried pharmacist X makes a dispensing error and patient Y suffers a serious complication. (At least until recently) how would a typical state’s pharmacy board act in this situation?
                A. Require the pharmacy to file an incident report about the error.
                B. Hold the pharmacy, not the pharmacist, responsible for the error.
                C. Take an action only if and after patient Y files a complaint.

                6. More than 30 years ago, the National Pharmacists Association advocated for pharmacist dispensing limits. What did it recommend?
                A. That a pharmacist fills no more than 15 prescriptions an hour.
                B. That a pharmacist fills no more than 30 prescriptions an hour.
                C. That a pharmacist fills no more than 300 prescriptions per day.

                7. What prompted Chicago and the state of Illinois to enact pharmacy workplace regulations?
                A. An increase in the number of complaints by pharmacists to the state board of pharmacy.
                B. A pharmacist work stoppage.
                C. An investigation by a local newspaper found that pharmacists failed to detect dangerous drug interactions.

                8. California enacted the Stop Dangerous Pharmacies Act in 2024. Which of the following is a component of the act?
                A. Pharmacists are not permitted to work more than 45 hours per week unless the Board declares a state-wide pharmacist shortage, or the pharmacist is agreeable.
                B. It increased the number of technicians a pharmacist is permitted to supervise, based on the prescription volume.
                C. The state prohibits chain pharmacies from establishing a quota related to the duties for which a pharmacist or pharmacy technician license is required.

                9. You have just been hired as pharmacist in charge of a chain pharmacy in Ohio. What does a new regulation in this state mandate?
                A. You are permitted two 15-minute rest breaks and must close the pharmacy during these periods.
                B. You cannot be required to work more than 12 continuous hours in one day.
                C. You must have at least two certified technicians available at all times so that the pharmacy is open.

                10. The tech-check-tech program encourages qualified technicians to perform a task that is normally performed by a pharmacist. What task is recommended?
                A. Perform final verification on prescriptions if a pharmacist has previously performed prospective drug utilization review.
                B. Contact the prescriber to clarify prescriptions whenever the technician suspects any kind of error.
                C. Counsel patients receiving a select group of medications, relying on a script approved by the pharmacist.

                References

                Full List of References

                REFERENCES

                 

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                1. Rebelo A. US Survey Signals Big Shifts in Primary Care to Pharmacy and Clinic Settings as Consumers Seek Lower Medication and Healthcare Costs. Wolters Kluver. December 7, 2022. Accessed from:

                https://www.wolterskluwer.com/en/news/us-survey-signals-big-shifts-in-primary-care-to-pharmacy-and-clinic-settings

                 

                1. JD Power. As Mail Order Pharmacies Continue to Climb in Customer Satisfaction, Chain Drug Stores Fall Behind, J.D. Power Finds. JD Power. July 30, 2024. Accessed from:

                https://www.jdpower.com/sites/default/files/file/2024-07/2024074%20U.S.%20Pharmacy.pdf

                 

                1. American Pharmacists Association. APhA and NASPA Release Eighth PWWR Report and Learnings. March 18, 2024. Accessed from:

                https://www.pharmacist.com/APhA-Press-Releases/apha-and-naspa-release-eighth-pwwr-report-and-learnings

                 

                1. Goodkind N. Why Walgreens Pharmacy Workers Are Walking Off the Job. CNN Business. October 10, 2023. Accessed from:

                https://www.cnn.com/2023/10/10/economy/walgreens-pharmacy-walkouts/index.html

                 

                1. Schommer JC, Gaither CA, Lee S, et al. 2021 APhA/NASPA National State-Based Pharmacy Workplace Survey. American Pharmacists Association. Final Report April 2022.

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                1. Total number of medical prescriptions dispensed in the U.S. from 2009 to 2022.

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                https://www.statista.com/statistics/238702/us-total-medical-prescriptions-issued/

                 

                1. Wittenauer R, Shah PD, Bacci JL, Stergachis A. Locations and Characteristics of Pharmacy Deserts in the United States: A Geospatial Study. Health Aff Sch. 2024; 2(4):qxae035. doi: 10.1093/haschl/qxae035. Accessed from:

                https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11034534/

                 

                1. Grabenstein JD. Essential services: Quantifying the contributions of America's pharmacists in COVID-19 clinical interventions. J Am Pharm Assoc. 2022;62(6):1929-1945.e1. doi: 10.1016/j.japh.2022.08.010. Epub 2022 Aug 18. PMID: 36202712; PMCID: PMC9387064. Accessed from:

                https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9387064/

                 

                10. Roe S, Long R, King K. Pharmacists Miss Half of Dangerous Drug Combinations. Chicago Tribune. December 2016. Retrieved from: https://www.chicagotribune.com/investigations/ct-drug-interactions-pharmacy-met-20161214-story.html

                 

                1. Gabler E. At Walgreens, Complaints of Medication Errors Go Missing. NY Times. Updated October 13, 2021. Accessed from:

                https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/21/health/pharmacies-prescription-errors.html

                 

                12. Gabler E. How Chaos at Chain Pharmacies is Putting Patients at Risk. NY Times. January 31, 2020. Retrieved from:

                https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/31/health/pharmacists-medication-errors.html

                 

                1. Le Coz E. Prescription for Disaster: America's Broken Pharmacy System in Revolt Over Burnout and Errors. USA Today. October 26, 2023. Retrieved from:

                https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/investigations/2023/10/26/pharmacy-chains-dangerous-conditions-medication-errors/71153960007/

                 

                14. Bond CA Raehl CL. Pharmacists' Assessment of Dispensing Errors: Risk Factors, Practice Sites, Professional Functions, and Satisfaction. Pharmacotherapy. 2001; 21(5): 614-626.

                 

                15. Flynn EA, Barker KN, Carnahan BJ. National Observational Study of Prescription Dispensing Accuracy and Safety in 50 Pharmacies. J APhA. 2001; 43(2): 191-200.

                 

                16. Campbell PJ, Patel M, Martin JR, et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis of community pharmacy error rates in the USA: 1993-2015. BMJ Open Qual. 2018;7(4):e000193.  doi:10.1136/bmjoq-2017-000193. Retrieved from:  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6173242/

                 

                1. Um IS, Clough A, Tan ECK. Dispensing error rates in pharmacy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Res Social Adm Pharm. 2024;20(1):1-9. doi:10.1016/j.sapharm.2023.10.003. Retrieved from:

                https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1551741123004552?via%3Dihub

                 

                1. Academy of Managed Care Pharmacy. Medication Errors. July 18, 2019. Retrieved from:

                https://www.amcp.org/about/managed-care-pharmacy-101/concepts-managed-care-pharmacy/medication-errors

                 

                19. James L, BM, Barlow D, McArtney R, et al. Incidence, type and causes of dispensing errors: a review of the literature. Int J Pharm Pract. 2009; 17(1): 9-30. Retrieved from:

                https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1211/ijpp.17.1.0004?sid=nlm%3Apubmed

                 

                 

                20. Pervanas HC, Revell N, Alotaibi AF. Evaluation of Medication Errors in Community Pharmacy Settings: A Retrospective Report. J Pharm Technol. 2016; 32(2): 71-74.

                 

                1. Kistner UA, Keith MR, Sergeant KA, et al. Accuracy of Dispensing in a High-Volume, Hospital Based Outpatient Pharmacy. Am J Hosp Pharm. 1994;512:793–7.

                 

                1. Allan EL, Barker KN, Malloy M, et al. Dispensing errors and counseling in community practice. Am Pharm 1995; NS35:25–33.

                 

                1. Hendren J. Overwork Threatens Druggists” Accuracy. LA Times. February 27, 2000. Retrieved from:

                https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2000-feb-27-mn-3125-story.html

                 

                1. Lopes J, Joaquim J, Matos C, Pires T. Medication errors in Community Pharmacy: Potencial Causes and strategies for Prevention. Clin Therap. 2015; 37(8 Supp): E119 (Abstract). Retrieved from:

                https://www.clinicaltherapeutics.com/article/S0149-2918(15)00648-7/fulltext

                 

                1. Catalano G, Khan MMM, Chatzipanagiotou OP, Pawlik TM. Pharmacy Accessibility and Social Vulnerability. JAMA Netw Open. 2024;7(8):e2429755. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.29755. Retrieved from:

                https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2822776

                 

                1. Trend: What is a Pharmacy Desert? TelePharm. Retrieved from:

                https://blog.telepharm.com/what-is-a-pharmacy-desert

                 

                1. Constantin J, Ullrich F, Mueller, KJ. Rural and Urban Pharmacy Presence – Pharmacy Deserts. RUPRI Center for Rural Health Policy Analysis Rural Policy Brief. August 2022. Retrieved from:

                https://rupri.public-health.uiowa.edu/publications/policybriefs/2022/Pharmacy%20Deserts.pdf

                 

                1. Constantino AK. Some Pharmacy Staff from Walgreens, Other Chains Are Walking Out Again — Here’s What You Need To Know. CNBC. October 29, 2023. Retrieved from:

                https://www.cnbc.com/2023/10/29/pharmacy-staff-from-walgreens-chains-like-cvs-to-walk-out-again.html

                 

                1. Adams AJ, Frost TP. Expunging Board of Pharmacy Disciplinary Actions. Innov Pharm. 2023;14(1):10.24926/iip.v14i1.5219. doi: 10.24926/iip.v14i1.5219. PMID: 38035318; PMCID: PMC10686669. Retrieved from:

                https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10686669/#:~:text=Boards%20of%20pharmacy%20have%20the,practice%20restrictions%2C%20fines%20and%20reprimands.

                 

                1. Holdsworth M, Wittstrom K, Yeitrakis T. Current Approaches to Punitive Action for Medication Errors by Boards of Pharmacy. Ann Pharmacother. 2013;47(4):475-81. doi: 10.1345/aph.1R668. Epub 2013 Apr 2. PMID: 23548647.

                 

                1. Long R. Chicago Moves Closer To Easing Pharmacist Workload. Chicago Tribune. October 10, 2017, Updated June 14, 2024. October 26, 2023. Retrieved from:

                https://www.chicagotribune.com/2017/10/10/chicago-moves-closer-to-easing-pharmacist-workload/

                 

                1. Illinois Statutes Ch 225. § 85/15.1. Pharmacy working conditions. Retrieved from:

                https://www.ilga.gov/legislation/ilcs/documents/022500850K15.1.htm

                 

                1. Long R, Roe S. After Tribune Investigation, Durbin Pushes Interactive Drug Protection for Consumers. Cap Gazette. December 16, 2016. Retrieved from:

                https://www.capitalgazette.com/ct-drug-interactions-durbin-pharmacy-20161216-story.html

                 

                1. 21 NC Admin Code 46 .2512. Pharmacist Work Conditions. Retrieved from:

                https://regulations.justia.com/states/north-carolina/title-21/chapter-46/section-2500/section-46-2512/

                 

                1. California. Stop Dangerous Pharmacies Act (AB 1286). 2024. Retrieved from:

                https://www.pharmacy.ca.gov/publications/ab1286_faqs.pdf

                 

                1. California State Board of Pharmacy. Medication Error Reduction and Workforce Chair Report. November 16, 2022. Retrieved from:

                https://www.pharmacy.ca.gov/meetings/agendas/2022/22_nov_med_mat.pdf

                 

                1. California Board of Pharmacy Considers New Legislation Regarding Pharmacy Workplace Conditions. Quarles Newsletter. December 19, 2022. Retrieved from:

                https://www.quarles.com/newsroom/publications/california-board-of-pharmacy-continues-to-tackle-concerns-surrounding-pharmacy-workplace-conditions

                 

                1. California Business and Professional Code. 4113.7. Retrieved from:

                https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/codes_displaySection.xhtml?sectionNum=4113.7.&lawCode=BPC

                 

                1. Oklahoma Admin Code. Section 535:15-3-16 - Adequate Staffing Rules for Pharmacists and Pharmacies. Retrieved from:

                https://casetext.com/regulation/oklahoma-administrative-code/title-535-oklahoma-state-board-of-pharmacy/chapter-15-pharmacies/subchapter-3-pharmacies/section-53515-3-16-adequate-staffing-rules-for-pharmacists-and-pharmacies

                 

                1. Ohio Board of Pharmacy. Outpatient Pharmacies Minimum Standards. Updated May1, 2024. Retrieved from:

                https://www.pharmacy.ohio.gov/documents/licensing/tddd/general/outpatient%20pharmacy%20minimum%20standards.pdf

                 

                41. Schladen M. New Ohio Pharmacy Rules to Take Effect in May. Ohio Cap J. April 1, 2024. Retrieved from:

                https://ohiocapitaljournal.com/2024/04/01/new-ohio-pharmacy-rules-to-take-effect-in-may/

                 

                1. The National Incident Data Repository for Community Pharmacies (NIDR)

                Information and Frequently Asked Questions. Institute for Safe Medication Practices Canada. September 2023. Retrieved from:

                https://ismpcanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/NIDR-faq.pdf

                 

                1. Frost TP, Adams AJ. Tech-Check-Tech in Community Pharmacy Practice Settings. J Pharm Technol. 2017;33(2):47–52. doi: 10.1177/8755122516683519. Epub 2016 Apr 1. PMCID: PMC5998445. Retrieved from:

                https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5998445/#:~:text=TCT%20enables%20a%20specially%20trained,in%20an%20automated%20dispensing%20system.

                REFERENCES

                 

                1. Semuels A. Why Your Pharmacy Experience is Miserable. Time. September 18, 2024.

                Accessed from:

                https://time.com/7022116/pharmacies-struggling/?utm_medium=email&utm_source=sfmc&utm_campaign=newsletter+brief+default+ac&utm_content=+++20240920+++body&et_rid=273534511&lctg=273534511

                 

                1. Rebelo A. US Survey Signals Big Shifts in Primary Care to Pharmacy and Clinic Settings as Consumers Seek Lower Medication and Healthcare Costs. Wolters Kluver. December 7, 2022. Accessed from:

                https://www.wolterskluwer.com/en/news/us-survey-signals-big-shifts-in-primary-care-to-pharmacy-and-clinic-settings

                 

                1. JD Power. As Mail Order Pharmacies Continue to Climb in Customer Satisfaction, Chain Drug Stores Fall Behind, J.D. Power Finds. JD Power. July 30, 2024. Accessed from:

                https://www.jdpower.com/sites/default/files/file/2024-07/2024074%20U.S.%20Pharmacy.pdf

                 

                1. American Pharmacists Association. APhA and NASPA Release Eighth PWWR Report and Learnings. March 18, 2024. Accessed from:

                https://www.pharmacist.com/APhA-Press-Releases/apha-and-naspa-release-eighth-pwwr-report-and-learnings

                 

                1. Goodkind N. Why Walgreens Pharmacy Workers Are Walking Off the Job. CNN Business. October 10, 2023. Accessed from:

                https://www.cnn.com/2023/10/10/economy/walgreens-pharmacy-walkouts/index.html

                 

                1. Schommer JC, Gaither CA, Lee S, et al. 2021 APhA/NASPA National State-Based Pharmacy Workplace Survey. American Pharmacists Association. Final Report April 2022.

                Accessed from:

                https://naspa.us/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/National-State-Based-Pharmacy-Workplace-Survey-Final-Report-APRIL-2022-FINAL.pdf#page=12.06

                 

                1. Total number of medical prescriptions dispensed in the U.S. from 2009 to 2022.

                Statista. Accessed from:

                https://www.statista.com/statistics/238702/us-total-medical-prescriptions-issued/

                 

                1. Wittenauer R, Shah PD, Bacci JL, Stergachis A. Locations and Characteristics of Pharmacy Deserts in the United States: A Geospatial Study. Health Aff Sch. 2024; 2(4):qxae035. doi: 10.1093/haschl/qxae035. Accessed from:

                https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11034534/

                 

                1. Grabenstein JD. Essential services: Quantifying the contributions of America's pharmacists in COVID-19 clinical interventions. J Am Pharm Assoc. 2022;62(6):1929-1945.e1. doi: 10.1016/j.japh.2022.08.010. Epub 2022 Aug 18. PMID: 36202712; PMCID: PMC9387064. Accessed from:

                https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9387064/

                 

                10. Roe S, Long R, King K. Pharmacists Miss Half of Dangerous Drug Combinations. Chicago Tribune. December 2016. Retrieved from: https://www.chicagotribune.com/investigations/ct-drug-interactions-pharmacy-met-20161214-story.html

                 

                1. Gabler E. At Walgreens, Complaints of Medication Errors Go Missing. NY Times. Updated October 13, 2021. Accessed from:

                https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/21/health/pharmacies-prescription-errors.html

                 

                12. Gabler E. How Chaos at Chain Pharmacies is Putting Patients at Risk. NY Times. January 31, 2020. Retrieved from:

                https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/31/health/pharmacists-medication-errors.html

                 

                1. Le Coz E. Prescription for Disaster: America's Broken Pharmacy System in Revolt Over Burnout and Errors. USA Today. October 26, 2023. Retrieved from:

                https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/investigations/2023/10/26/pharmacy-chains-dangerous-conditions-medication-errors/71153960007/

                 

                14. Bond CA Raehl CL. Pharmacists' Assessment of Dispensing Errors: Risk Factors, Practice Sites, Professional Functions, and Satisfaction. Pharmacotherapy. 2001; 21(5): 614-626.

                 

                15. Flynn EA, Barker KN, Carnahan BJ. National Observational Study of Prescription Dispensing Accuracy and Safety in 50 Pharmacies. J APhA. 2001; 43(2): 191-200.

                 

                16. Campbell PJ, Patel M, Martin JR, et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis of community pharmacy error rates in the USA: 1993-2015. BMJ Open Qual. 2018;7(4):e000193.  doi:10.1136/bmjoq-2017-000193. Retrieved from:  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6173242/

                 

                1. Um IS, Clough A, Tan ECK. Dispensing error rates in pharmacy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Res Social Adm Pharm. 2024;20(1):1-9. doi:10.1016/j.sapharm.2023.10.003. Retrieved from:

                https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1551741123004552?via%3Dihub

                 

                1. Academy of Managed Care Pharmacy. Medication Errors. July 18, 2019. Retrieved from:

                https://www.amcp.org/about/managed-care-pharmacy-101/concepts-managed-care-pharmacy/medication-errors

                 

                19. James L, BM, Barlow D, McArtney R, et al. Incidence, type and causes of dispensing errors: a review of the literature. Int J Pharm Pract. 2009; 17(1): 9-30. Retrieved from:

                https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1211/ijpp.17.1.0004?sid=nlm%3Apubmed

                 

                 

                20. Pervanas HC, Revell N, Alotaibi AF. Evaluation of Medication Errors in Community Pharmacy Settings: A Retrospective Report. J Pharm Technol. 2016; 32(2): 71-74.

                 

                1. Kistner UA, Keith MR, Sergeant KA, et al. Accuracy of Dispensing in a High-Volume, Hospital Based Outpatient Pharmacy. Am J Hosp Pharm. 1994;512:793–7.

                 

                1. Allan EL, Barker KN, Malloy M, et al. Dispensing errors and counseling in community practice. Am Pharm 1995; NS35:25–33.

                 

                1. Hendren J. Overwork Threatens Druggists” Accuracy. LA Times. February 27, 2000. Retrieved from:

                https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2000-feb-27-mn-3125-story.html

                 

                1. Lopes J, Joaquim J, Matos C, Pires T. Medication errors in Community Pharmacy: Potencial Causes and strategies for Prevention. Clin Therap. 2015; 37(8 Supp): E119 (Abstract). Retrieved from:

                https://www.clinicaltherapeutics.com/article/S0149-2918(15)00648-7/fulltext

                 

                1. Catalano G, Khan MMM, Chatzipanagiotou OP, Pawlik TM. Pharmacy Accessibility and Social Vulnerability. JAMA Netw Open. 2024;7(8):e2429755. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.29755. Retrieved from:

                https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2822776

                 

                1. Trend: What is a Pharmacy Desert? TelePharm. Retrieved from:

                https://blog.telepharm.com/what-is-a-pharmacy-desert

                 

                1. Constantin J, Ullrich F, Mueller, KJ. Rural and Urban Pharmacy Presence – Pharmacy Deserts. RUPRI Center for Rural Health Policy Analysis Rural Policy Brief. August 2022. Retrieved from:

                https://rupri.public-health.uiowa.edu/publications/policybriefs/2022/Pharmacy%20Deserts.pdf

                 

                1. Constantino AK. Some Pharmacy Staff from Walgreens, Other Chains Are Walking Out Again — Here’s What You Need To Know. CNBC. October 29, 2023. Retrieved from:

                https://www.cnbc.com/2023/10/29/pharmacy-staff-from-walgreens-chains-like-cvs-to-walk-out-again.html

                 

                1. Adams AJ, Frost TP. Expunging Board of Pharmacy Disciplinary Actions. Innov Pharm. 2023;14(1):10.24926/iip.v14i1.5219. doi: 10.24926/iip.v14i1.5219. PMID: 38035318; PMCID: PMC10686669. Retrieved from:

                https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10686669/#:~:text=Boards%20of%20pharmacy%20have%20the,practice%20restrictions%2C%20fines%20and%20reprimands.

                 

                1. Holdsworth M, Wittstrom K, Yeitrakis T. Current Approaches to Punitive Action for Medication Errors by Boards of Pharmacy. Ann Pharmacother. 2013;47(4):475-81. doi: 10.1345/aph.1R668. Epub 2013 Apr 2. PMID: 23548647.

                 

                1. Long R. Chicago Moves Closer To Easing Pharmacist Workload. Chicago Tribune. October 10, 2017, Updated June 14, 2024. October 26, 2023. Retrieved from:

                https://www.chicagotribune.com/2017/10/10/chicago-moves-closer-to-easing-pharmacist-workload/

                 

                1. Illinois Statutes Ch 225. § 85/15.1. Pharmacy working conditions. Retrieved from:

                https://www.ilga.gov/legislation/ilcs/documents/022500850K15.1.htm

                 

                1. Long R, Roe S. After Tribune Investigation, Durbin Pushes Interactive Drug Protection for Consumers. Cap Gazette. December 16, 2016. Retrieved from:

                https://www.capitalgazette.com/ct-drug-interactions-durbin-pharmacy-20161216-story.html

                 

                1. 21 NC Admin Code 46 .2512. Pharmacist Work Conditions. Retrieved from:

                https://regulations.justia.com/states/north-carolina/title-21/chapter-46/section-2500/section-46-2512/

                 

                1. California. Stop Dangerous Pharmacies Act (AB 1286). 2024. Retrieved from:

                https://www.pharmacy.ca.gov/publications/ab1286_faqs.pdf

                 

                1. California State Board of Pharmacy. Medication Error Reduction and Workforce Chair Report. November 16, 2022. Retrieved from:

                https://www.pharmacy.ca.gov/meetings/agendas/2022/22_nov_med_mat.pdf

                 

                1. California Board of Pharmacy Considers New Legislation Regarding Pharmacy Workplace Conditions. Quarles Newsletter. December 19, 2022. Retrieved from:

                https://www.quarles.com/newsroom/publications/california-board-of-pharmacy-continues-to-tackle-concerns-surrounding-pharmacy-workplace-conditions

                 

                1. California Business and Professional Code. 4113.7. Retrieved from:

                https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/codes_displaySection.xhtml?sectionNum=4113.7.&lawCode=BPC

                 

                1. Oklahoma Admin Code. Section 535:15-3-16 - Adequate Staffing Rules for Pharmacists and Pharmacies. Retrieved from:

                https://casetext.com/regulation/oklahoma-administrative-code/title-535-oklahoma-state-board-of-pharmacy/chapter-15-pharmacies/subchapter-3-pharmacies/section-53515-3-16-adequate-staffing-rules-for-pharmacists-and-pharmacies

                 

                1. Ohio Board of Pharmacy. Outpatient Pharmacies Minimum Standards. Updated May1, 2024. Retrieved from:

                https://www.pharmacy.ohio.gov/documents/licensing/tddd/general/outpatient%20pharmacy%20minimum%20standards.pdf

                 

                41. Schladen M. New Ohio Pharmacy Rules to Take Effect in May. Ohio Cap J. April 1, 2024. Retrieved from:

                https://ohiocapitaljournal.com/2024/04/01/new-ohio-pharmacy-rules-to-take-effect-in-may/

                 

                1. The National Incident Data Repository for Community Pharmacies (NIDR)

                Information and Frequently Asked Questions. Institute for Safe Medication Practices Canada. September 2023. Retrieved from:

                https://ismpcanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/NIDR-faq.pdf

                 

                1. Frost TP, Adams AJ. Tech-Check-Tech in Community Pharmacy Practice Settings. J Pharm Technol. 2017;33(2):47–52. doi: 10.1177/8755122516683519. Epub 2016 Apr 1. PMCID: PMC5998445. Retrieved from:

                https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5998445/#:~:text=TCT%20enables%20a%20specially%20trained,in%20an%20automated%20dispensing%20system.

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                REFERENCES

                 

                1. Semuels A. Why Your Pharmacy Experience is Miserable. Time. September 18, 2024.

                Accessed from:

                https://time.com/7022116/pharmacies-struggling/?utm_medium=email&utm_source=sfmc&utm_campaign=newsletter+brief+default+ac&utm_content=+++20240920+++body&et_rid=273534511&lctg=273534511

                 

                1. Rebelo A. US Survey Signals Big Shifts in Primary Care to Pharmacy and Clinic Settings as Consumers Seek Lower Medication and Healthcare Costs. Wolters Kluver. December 7, 2022. Accessed from:

                https://www.wolterskluwer.com/en/news/us-survey-signals-big-shifts-in-primary-care-to-pharmacy-and-clinic-settings

                 

                1. JD Power. As Mail Order Pharmacies Continue to Climb in Customer Satisfaction, Chain Drug Stores Fall Behind, J.D. Power Finds. JD Power. July 30, 2024. Accessed from:

                https://www.jdpower.com/sites/default/files/file/2024-07/2024074%20U.S.%20Pharmacy.pdf

                 

                1. American Pharmacists Association. APhA and NASPA Release Eighth PWWR Report and Learnings. March 18, 2024. Accessed from:

                https://www.pharmacist.com/APhA-Press-Releases/apha-and-naspa-release-eighth-pwwr-report-and-learnings

                 

                1. Goodkind N. Why Walgreens Pharmacy Workers Are Walking Off the Job. CNN Business. October 10, 2023. Accessed from:

                https://www.cnn.com/2023/10/10/economy/walgreens-pharmacy-walkouts/index.html

                 

                1. Schommer JC, Gaither CA, Lee S, et al. 2021 APhA/NASPA National State-Based Pharmacy Workplace Survey. American Pharmacists Association. Final Report April 2022.

                Accessed from:

                https://naspa.us/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/National-State-Based-Pharmacy-Workplace-Survey-Final-Report-APRIL-2022-FINAL.pdf#page=12.06

                 

                1. Total number of medical prescriptions dispensed in the U.S. from 2009 to 2022.

                Statista. Accessed from:

                https://www.statista.com/statistics/238702/us-total-medical-prescriptions-issued/

                 

                1. Wittenauer R, Shah PD, Bacci JL, Stergachis A. Locations and Characteristics of Pharmacy Deserts in the United States: A Geospatial Study. Health Aff Sch. 2024; 2(4):qxae035. doi: 10.1093/haschl/qxae035. Accessed from:

                https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11034534/

                 

                1. Grabenstein JD. Essential services: Quantifying the contributions of America's pharmacists in COVID-19 clinical interventions. J Am Pharm Assoc. 2022;62(6):1929-1945.e1. doi: 10.1016/j.japh.2022.08.010. Epub 2022 Aug 18. PMID: 36202712; PMCID: PMC9387064. Accessed from:

                https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9387064/

                 

                10. Roe S, Long R, King K. Pharmacists Miss Half of Dangerous Drug Combinations. Chicago Tribune. December 2016. Retrieved from: https://www.chicagotribune.com/investigations/ct-drug-interactions-pharmacy-met-20161214-story.html

                 

                1. Gabler E. At Walgreens, Complaints of Medication Errors Go Missing. NY Times. Updated October 13, 2021. Accessed from:

                https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/21/health/pharmacies-prescription-errors.html

                 

                12. Gabler E. How Chaos at Chain Pharmacies is Putting Patients at Risk. NY Times. January 31, 2020. Retrieved from:

                https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/31/health/pharmacists-medication-errors.html

                 

                1. Le Coz E. Prescription for Disaster: America's Broken Pharmacy System in Revolt Over Burnout and Errors. USA Today. October 26, 2023. Retrieved from:

                https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/investigations/2023/10/26/pharmacy-chains-dangerous-conditions-medication-errors/71153960007/

                 

                14. Bond CA Raehl CL. Pharmacists' Assessment of Dispensing Errors: Risk Factors, Practice Sites, Professional Functions, and Satisfaction. Pharmacotherapy. 2001; 21(5): 614-626.

                 

                15. Flynn EA, Barker KN, Carnahan BJ. National Observational Study of Prescription Dispensing Accuracy and Safety in 50 Pharmacies. J APhA. 2001; 43(2): 191-200.

                 

                16. Campbell PJ, Patel M, Martin JR, et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis of community pharmacy error rates in the USA: 1993-2015. BMJ Open Qual. 2018;7(4):e000193.  doi:10.1136/bmjoq-2017-000193. Retrieved from:  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6173242/

                 

                1. Um IS, Clough A, Tan ECK. Dispensing error rates in pharmacy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Res Social Adm Pharm. 2024;20(1):1-9. doi:10.1016/j.sapharm.2023.10.003. Retrieved from:

                https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1551741123004552?via%3Dihub

                 

                1. Academy of Managed Care Pharmacy. Medication Errors. July 18, 2019. Retrieved from:

                https://www.amcp.org/about/managed-care-pharmacy-101/concepts-managed-care-pharmacy/medication-errors

                 

                19. James L, BM, Barlow D, McArtney R, et al. Incidence, type and causes of dispensing errors: a review of the literature. Int J Pharm Pract. 2009; 17(1): 9-30. Retrieved from:

                https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1211/ijpp.17.1.0004?sid=nlm%3Apubmed

                 

                 

                20. Pervanas HC, Revell N, Alotaibi AF. Evaluation of Medication Errors in Community Pharmacy Settings: A Retrospective Report. J Pharm Technol. 2016; 32(2): 71-74.

                 

                1. Kistner UA, Keith MR, Sergeant KA, et al. Accuracy of Dispensing in a High-Volume, Hospital Based Outpatient Pharmacy. Am J Hosp Pharm. 1994;512:793–7.

                 

                1. Allan EL, Barker KN, Malloy M, et al. Dispensing errors and counseling in community practice. Am Pharm 1995; NS35:25–33.

                 

                1. Hendren J. Overwork Threatens Druggists” Accuracy. LA Times. February 27, 2000. Retrieved from:

                https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2000-feb-27-mn-3125-story.html

                 

                1. Lopes J, Joaquim J, Matos C, Pires T. Medication errors in Community Pharmacy: Potencial Causes and strategies for Prevention. Clin Therap. 2015; 37(8 Supp): E119 (Abstract). Retrieved from:

                https://www.clinicaltherapeutics.com/article/S0149-2918(15)00648-7/fulltext

                 

                1. Catalano G, Khan MMM, Chatzipanagiotou OP, Pawlik TM. Pharmacy Accessibility and Social Vulnerability. JAMA Netw Open. 2024;7(8):e2429755. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.29755. Retrieved from:

                https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2822776

                 

                1. Trend: What is a Pharmacy Desert? TelePharm. Retrieved from:

                https://blog.telepharm.com/what-is-a-pharmacy-desert

                 

                1. Constantin J, Ullrich F, Mueller, KJ. Rural and Urban Pharmacy Presence – Pharmacy Deserts. RUPRI Center for Rural Health Policy Analysis Rural Policy Brief. August 2022. Retrieved from:

                https://rupri.public-health.uiowa.edu/publications/policybriefs/2022/Pharmacy%20Deserts.pdf

                 

                1. Constantino AK. Some Pharmacy Staff from Walgreens, Other Chains Are Walking Out Again — Here’s What You Need To Know. CNBC. October 29, 2023. Retrieved from:

                https://www.cnbc.com/2023/10/29/pharmacy-staff-from-walgreens-chains-like-cvs-to-walk-out-again.html

                 

                1. Adams AJ, Frost TP. Expunging Board of Pharmacy Disciplinary Actions. Innov Pharm. 2023;14(1):10.24926/iip.v14i1.5219. doi: 10.24926/iip.v14i1.5219. PMID: 38035318; PMCID: PMC10686669. Retrieved from:

                https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10686669/#:~:text=Boards%20of%20pharmacy%20have%20the,practice%20restrictions%2C%20fines%20and%20reprimands.

                 

                1. Holdsworth M, Wittstrom K, Yeitrakis T. Current Approaches to Punitive Action for Medication Errors by Boards of Pharmacy. Ann Pharmacother. 2013;47(4):475-81. doi: 10.1345/aph.1R668. Epub 2013 Apr 2. PMID: 23548647.

                 

                1. Long R. Chicago Moves Closer To Easing Pharmacist Workload. Chicago Tribune. October 10, 2017, Updated June 14, 2024. October 26, 2023. Retrieved from:

                https://www.chicagotribune.com/2017/10/10/chicago-moves-closer-to-easing-pharmacist-workload/

                 

                1. Illinois Statutes Ch 225. § 85/15.1. Pharmacy working conditions. Retrieved from:

                https://www.ilga.gov/legislation/ilcs/documents/022500850K15.1.htm

                 

                1. Long R, Roe S. After Tribune Investigation, Durbin Pushes Interactive Drug Protection for Consumers. Cap Gazette. December 16, 2016. Retrieved from:

                https://www.capitalgazette.com/ct-drug-interactions-durbin-pharmacy-20161216-story.html

                 

                1. 21 NC Admin Code 46 .2512. Pharmacist Work Conditions. Retrieved from:

                https://regulations.justia.com/states/north-carolina/title-21/chapter-46/section-2500/section-46-2512/

                 

                1. California. Stop Dangerous Pharmacies Act (AB 1286). 2024. Retrieved from:

                https://www.pharmacy.ca.gov/publications/ab1286_faqs.pdf

                 

                1. California State Board of Pharmacy. Medication Error Reduction and Workforce Chair Report. November 16, 2022. Retrieved from:

                https://www.pharmacy.ca.gov/meetings/agendas/2022/22_nov_med_mat.pdf

                 

                1. California Board of Pharmacy Considers New Legislation Regarding Pharmacy Workplace Conditions. Quarles Newsletter. December 19, 2022. Retrieved from:

                https://www.quarles.com/newsroom/publications/california-board-of-pharmacy-continues-to-tackle-concerns-surrounding-pharmacy-workplace-conditions

                 

                1. California Business and Professional Code. 4113.7. Retrieved from:

                https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/codes_displaySection.xhtml?sectionNum=4113.7.&lawCode=BPC

                 

                1. Oklahoma Admin Code. Section 535:15-3-16 - Adequate Staffing Rules for Pharmacists and Pharmacies. Retrieved from:

                https://casetext.com/regulation/oklahoma-administrative-code/title-535-oklahoma-state-board-of-pharmacy/chapter-15-pharmacies/subchapter-3-pharmacies/section-53515-3-16-adequate-staffing-rules-for-pharmacists-and-pharmacies

                 

                1. Ohio Board of Pharmacy. Outpatient Pharmacies Minimum Standards. Updated May1, 2024. Retrieved from:

                https://www.pharmacy.ohio.gov/documents/licensing/tddd/general/outpatient%20pharmacy%20minimum%20standards.pdf

                 

                41. Schladen M. New Ohio Pharmacy Rules to Take Effect in May. Ohio Cap J. April 1, 2024. Retrieved from:

                https://ohiocapitaljournal.com/2024/04/01/new-ohio-pharmacy-rules-to-take-effect-in-may/

                 

                1. The National Incident Data Repository for Community Pharmacies (NIDR)

                Information and Frequently Asked Questions. Institute for Safe Medication Practices Canada. September 2023. Retrieved from:

                https://ismpcanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/NIDR-faq.pdf

                 

                1. Frost TP, Adams AJ. Tech-Check-Tech in Community Pharmacy Practice Settings. J Pharm Technol. 2017;33(2):47–52. doi: 10.1177/8755122516683519. Epub 2016 Apr 1. PMCID: PMC5998445. Retrieved from:

                https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5998445/#:~:text=TCT%20enables%20a%20specially%20trained,in%20an%20automated%20dispensing%20system.

                REFERENCES

                 

                1. Semuels A. Why Your Pharmacy Experience is Miserable. Time. September 18, 2024.

                Accessed from:

                https://time.com/7022116/pharmacies-struggling/?utm_medium=email&utm_source=sfmc&utm_campaign=newsletter+brief+default+ac&utm_content=+++20240920+++body&et_rid=273534511&lctg=273534511

                 

                1. Rebelo A. US Survey Signals Big Shifts in Primary Care to Pharmacy and Clinic Settings as Consumers Seek Lower Medication and Healthcare Costs. Wolters Kluver. December 7, 2022. Accessed from:

                https://www.wolterskluwer.com/en/news/us-survey-signals-big-shifts-in-primary-care-to-pharmacy-and-clinic-settings

                 

                1. JD Power. As Mail Order Pharmacies Continue to Climb in Customer Satisfaction, Chain Drug Stores Fall Behind, J.D. Power Finds. JD Power. July 30, 2024. Accessed from:

                https://www.jdpower.com/sites/default/files/file/2024-07/2024074%20U.S.%20Pharmacy.pdf

                 

                1. American Pharmacists Association. APhA and NASPA Release Eighth PWWR Report and Learnings. March 18, 2024. Accessed from:

                https://www.pharmacist.com/APhA-Press-Releases/apha-and-naspa-release-eighth-pwwr-report-and-learnings

                 

                1. Goodkind N. Why Walgreens Pharmacy Workers Are Walking Off the Job. CNN Business. October 10, 2023. Accessed from:

                https://www.cnn.com/2023/10/10/economy/walgreens-pharmacy-walkouts/index.html

                 

                1. Schommer JC, Gaither CA, Lee S, et al. 2021 APhA/NASPA National State-Based Pharmacy Workplace Survey. American Pharmacists Association. Final Report April 2022.

                Accessed from:

                https://naspa.us/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/National-State-Based-Pharmacy-Workplace-Survey-Final-Report-APRIL-2022-FINAL.pdf#page=12.06

                 

                1. Total number of medical prescriptions dispensed in the U.S. from 2009 to 2022.

                Statista. Accessed from:

                https://www.statista.com/statistics/238702/us-total-medical-prescriptions-issued/

                 

                1. Wittenauer R, Shah PD, Bacci JL, Stergachis A. Locations and Characteristics of Pharmacy Deserts in the United States: A Geospatial Study. Health Aff Sch. 2024; 2(4):qxae035. doi: 10.1093/haschl/qxae035. Accessed from:

                https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11034534/

                 

                1. Grabenstein JD. Essential services: Quantifying the contributions of America's pharmacists in COVID-19 clinical interventions. J Am Pharm Assoc. 2022;62(6):1929-1945.e1. doi: 10.1016/j.japh.2022.08.010. Epub 2022 Aug 18. PMID: 36202712; PMCID: PMC9387064. Accessed from:

                https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9387064/

                 

                10. Roe S, Long R, King K. Pharmacists Miss Half of Dangerous Drug Combinations. Chicago Tribune. December 2016. Retrieved from: https://www.chicagotribune.com/investigations/ct-drug-interactions-pharmacy-met-20161214-story.html

                 

                1. Gabler E. At Walgreens, Complaints of Medication Errors Go Missing. NY Times. Updated October 13, 2021. Accessed from:

                https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/21/health/pharmacies-prescription-errors.html

                 

                12. Gabler E. How Chaos at Chain Pharmacies is Putting Patients at Risk. NY Times. January 31, 2020. Retrieved from:

                https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/31/health/pharmacists-medication-errors.html

                 

                1. Le Coz E. Prescription for Disaster: America's Broken Pharmacy System in Revolt Over Burnout and Errors. USA Today. October 26, 2023. Retrieved from:

                https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/investigations/2023/10/26/pharmacy-chains-dangerous-conditions-medication-errors/71153960007/

                 

                14. Bond CA Raehl CL. Pharmacists' Assessment of Dispensing Errors: Risk Factors, Practice Sites, Professional Functions, and Satisfaction. Pharmacotherapy. 2001; 21(5): 614-626.

                 

                15. Flynn EA, Barker KN, Carnahan BJ. National Observational Study of Prescription Dispensing Accuracy and Safety in 50 Pharmacies. J APhA. 2001; 43(2): 191-200.

                 

                16. Campbell PJ, Patel M, Martin JR, et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis of community pharmacy error rates in the USA: 1993-2015. BMJ Open Qual. 2018;7(4):e000193.  doi:10.1136/bmjoq-2017-000193. Retrieved from:  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6173242/

                 

                1. Um IS, Clough A, Tan ECK. Dispensing error rates in pharmacy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Res Social Adm Pharm. 2024;20(1):1-9. doi:10.1016/j.sapharm.2023.10.003. Retrieved from:

                https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1551741123004552?via%3Dihub

                 

                1. Academy of Managed Care Pharmacy. Medication Errors. July 18, 2019. Retrieved from:

                https://www.amcp.org/about/managed-care-pharmacy-101/concepts-managed-care-pharmacy/medication-errors

                 

                19. James L, BM, Barlow D, McArtney R, et al. Incidence, type and causes of dispensing errors: a review of the literature. Int J Pharm Pract. 2009; 17(1): 9-30. Retrieved from:

                https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1211/ijpp.17.1.0004?sid=nlm%3Apubmed

                 

                 

                20. Pervanas HC, Revell N, Alotaibi AF. Evaluation of Medication Errors in Community Pharmacy Settings: A Retrospective Report. J Pharm Technol. 2016; 32(2): 71-74.

                 

                1. Kistner UA, Keith MR, Sergeant KA, et al. Accuracy of Dispensing in a High-Volume, Hospital Based Outpatient Pharmacy. Am J Hosp Pharm. 1994;512:793–7.

                 

                1. Allan EL, Barker KN, Malloy M, et al. Dispensing errors and counseling in community practice. Am Pharm 1995; NS35:25–33.

                 

                1. Hendren J. Overwork Threatens Druggists” Accuracy. LA Times. February 27, 2000. Retrieved from:

                https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2000-feb-27-mn-3125-story.html

                 

                1. Lopes J, Joaquim J, Matos C, Pires T. Medication errors in Community Pharmacy: Potencial Causes and strategies for Prevention. Clin Therap. 2015; 37(8 Supp): E119 (Abstract). Retrieved from:

                https://www.clinicaltherapeutics.com/article/S0149-2918(15)00648-7/fulltext

                 

                1. Catalano G, Khan MMM, Chatzipanagiotou OP, Pawlik TM. Pharmacy Accessibility and Social Vulnerability. JAMA Netw Open. 2024;7(8):e2429755. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.29755. Retrieved from:

                https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2822776

                 

                1. Trend: What is a Pharmacy Desert? TelePharm. Retrieved from:

                https://blog.telepharm.com/what-is-a-pharmacy-desert

                 

                1. Constantin J, Ullrich F, Mueller, KJ. Rural and Urban Pharmacy Presence – Pharmacy Deserts. RUPRI Center for Rural Health Policy Analysis Rural Policy Brief. August 2022. Retrieved from:

                https://rupri.public-health.uiowa.edu/publications/policybriefs/2022/Pharmacy%20Deserts.pdf

                 

                1. Constantino AK. Some Pharmacy Staff from Walgreens, Other Chains Are Walking Out Again — Here’s What You Need To Know. CNBC. October 29, 2023. Retrieved from:

                https://www.cnbc.com/2023/10/29/pharmacy-staff-from-walgreens-chains-like-cvs-to-walk-out-again.html

                 

                1. Adams AJ, Frost TP. Expunging Board of Pharmacy Disciplinary Actions. Innov Pharm. 2023;14(1):10.24926/iip.v14i1.5219. doi: 10.24926/iip.v14i1.5219. PMID: 38035318; PMCID: PMC10686669. Retrieved from:

                https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10686669/#:~:text=Boards%20of%20pharmacy%20have%20the,practice%20restrictions%2C%20fines%20and%20reprimands.

                 

                1. Holdsworth M, Wittstrom K, Yeitrakis T. Current Approaches to Punitive Action for Medication Errors by Boards of Pharmacy. Ann Pharmacother. 2013;47(4):475-81. doi: 10.1345/aph.1R668. Epub 2013 Apr 2. PMID: 23548647.

                 

                1. Long R. Chicago Moves Closer To Easing Pharmacist Workload. Chicago Tribune. October 10, 2017, Updated June 14, 2024. October 26, 2023. Retrieved from:

                https://www.chicagotribune.com/2017/10/10/chicago-moves-closer-to-easing-pharmacist-workload/

                 

                1. Illinois Statutes Ch 225. § 85/15.1. Pharmacy working conditions. Retrieved from:

                https://www.ilga.gov/legislation/ilcs/documents/022500850K15.1.htm

                 

                1. Long R, Roe S. After Tribune Investigation, Durbin Pushes Interactive Drug Protection for Consumers. Cap Gazette. December 16, 2016. Retrieved from:

                https://www.capitalgazette.com/ct-drug-interactions-durbin-pharmacy-20161216-story.html

                 

                1. 21 NC Admin Code 46 .2512. Pharmacist Work Conditions. Retrieved from:

                https://regulations.justia.com/states/north-carolina/title-21/chapter-46/section-2500/section-46-2512/

                 

                1. California. Stop Dangerous Pharmacies Act (AB 1286). 2024. Retrieved from:

                https://www.pharmacy.ca.gov/publications/ab1286_faqs.pdf

                 

                1. California State Board of Pharmacy. Medication Error Reduction and Workforce Chair Report. November 16, 2022. Retrieved from:

                https://www.pharmacy.ca.gov/meetings/agendas/2022/22_nov_med_mat.pdf

                 

                1. California Board of Pharmacy Considers New Legislation Regarding Pharmacy Workplace Conditions. Quarles Newsletter. December 19, 2022. Retrieved from:

                https://www.quarles.com/newsroom/publications/california-board-of-pharmacy-continues-to-tackle-concerns-surrounding-pharmacy-workplace-conditions

                 

                1. California Business and Professional Code. 4113.7. Retrieved from:

                https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/codes_displaySection.xhtml?sectionNum=4113.7.&lawCode=BPC

                 

                1. Oklahoma Admin Code. Section 535:15-3-16 - Adequate Staffing Rules for Pharmacists and Pharmacies. Retrieved from:

                https://casetext.com/regulation/oklahoma-administrative-code/title-535-oklahoma-state-board-of-pharmacy/chapter-15-pharmacies/subchapter-3-pharmacies/section-53515-3-16-adequate-staffing-rules-for-pharmacists-and-pharmacies

                 

                1. Ohio Board of Pharmacy. Outpatient Pharmacies Minimum Standards. Updated May1, 2024. Retrieved from:

                https://www.pharmacy.ohio.gov/documents/licensing/tddd/general/outpatient%20pharmacy%20minimum%20standards.pdf

                 

                41. Schladen M. New Ohio Pharmacy Rules to Take Effect in May. Ohio Cap J. April 1, 2024. Retrieved from:

                https://ohiocapitaljournal.com/2024/04/01/new-ohio-pharmacy-rules-to-take-effect-in-may/

                 

                1. The National Incident Data Repository for Community Pharmacies (NIDR)

                Information and Frequently Asked Questions. Institute for Safe Medication Practices Canada. September 2023. Retrieved from:

                https://ismpcanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/NIDR-faq.pdf

                 

                1. Frost TP, Adams AJ. Tech-Check-Tech in Community Pharmacy Practice Settings. J Pharm Technol. 2017;33(2):47–52. doi: 10.1177/8755122516683519. Epub 2016 Apr 1. PMCID: PMC5998445. Retrieved from:

                https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5998445/#:~:text=TCT%20enables%20a%20specially%20trained,in%20an%20automated%20dispensing%20system.

                 

                REFERENCES

                 

                1. Semuels A. Why Your Pharmacy Experience is Miserable. Time. September 18, 2024.

                Accessed from:

                https://time.com/7022116/pharmacies-struggling/?utm_medium=email&utm_source=sfmc&utm_campaign=newsletter+brief+default+ac&utm_content=+++20240920+++body&et_rid=273534511&lctg=273534511

                 

                1. Rebelo A. US Survey Signals Big Shifts in Primary Care to Pharmacy and Clinic Settings as Consumers Seek Lower Medication and Healthcare Costs. Wolters Kluver. December 7, 2022. Accessed from:

                https://www.wolterskluwer.com/en/news/us-survey-signals-big-shifts-in-primary-care-to-pharmacy-and-clinic-settings

                 

                1. JD Power. As Mail Order Pharmacies Continue to Climb in Customer Satisfaction, Chain Drug Stores Fall Behind, J.D. Power Finds. JD Power. July 30, 2024. Accessed from:

                https://www.jdpower.com/sites/default/files/file/2024-07/2024074%20U.S.%20Pharmacy.pdf

                 

                1. American Pharmacists Association. APhA and NASPA Release Eighth PWWR Report and Learnings. March 18, 2024. Accessed from:

                https://www.pharmacist.com/APhA-Press-Releases/apha-and-naspa-release-eighth-pwwr-report-and-learnings

                 

                1. Goodkind N. Why Walgreens Pharmacy Workers Are Walking Off the Job. CNN Business. October 10, 2023. Accessed from:

                https://www.cnn.com/2023/10/10/economy/walgreens-pharmacy-walkouts/index.html

                 

                1. Schommer JC, Gaither CA, Lee S, et al. 2021 APhA/NASPA National State-Based Pharmacy Workplace Survey. American Pharmacists Association. Final Report April 2022.

                Accessed from:

                https://naspa.us/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/National-State-Based-Pharmacy-Workplace-Survey-Final-Report-APRIL-2022-FINAL.pdf#page=12.06

                 

                1. Total number of medical prescriptions dispensed in the U.S. from 2009 to 2022.

                Statista. Accessed from:

                https://www.statista.com/statistics/238702/us-total-medical-prescriptions-issued/

                 

                1. Wittenauer R, Shah PD, Bacci JL, Stergachis A. Locations and Characteristics of Pharmacy Deserts in the United States: A Geospatial Study. Health Aff Sch. 2024; 2(4):qxae035. doi: 10.1093/haschl/qxae035. Accessed from:

                https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11034534/

                 

                1. Grabenstein JD. Essential services: Quantifying the contributions of America's pharmacists in COVID-19 clinical interventions. J Am Pharm Assoc. 2022;62(6):1929-1945.e1. doi: 10.1016/j.japh.2022.08.010. Epub 2022 Aug 18. PMID: 36202712; PMCID: PMC9387064. Accessed from:

                https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9387064/

                 

                10. Roe S, Long R, King K. Pharmacists Miss Half of Dangerous Drug Combinations. Chicago Tribune. December 2016. Retrieved from: https://www.chicagotribune.com/investigations/ct-drug-interactions-pharmacy-met-20161214-story.html

                 

                1. Gabler E. At Walgreens, Complaints of Medication Errors Go Missing. NY Times. Updated October 13, 2021. Accessed from:

                https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/21/health/pharmacies-prescription-errors.html

                 

                12. Gabler E. How Chaos at Chain Pharmacies is Putting Patients at Risk. NY Times. January 31, 2020. Retrieved from:

                https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/31/health/pharmacists-medication-errors.html

                 

                1. Le Coz E. Prescription for Disaster: America's Broken Pharmacy System in Revolt Over Burnout and Errors. USA Today. October 26, 2023. Retrieved from:

                https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/investigations/2023/10/26/pharmacy-chains-dangerous-conditions-medication-errors/71153960007/

                 

                14. Bond CA Raehl CL. Pharmacists' Assessment of Dispensing Errors: Risk Factors, Practice Sites, Professional Functions, and Satisfaction. Pharmacotherapy. 2001; 21(5): 614-626.

                 

                15. Flynn EA, Barker KN, Carnahan BJ. National Observational Study of Prescription Dispensing Accuracy and Safety in 50 Pharmacies. J APhA. 2001; 43(2): 191-200.

                 

                16. Campbell PJ, Patel M, Martin JR, et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis of community pharmacy error rates in the USA: 1993-2015. BMJ Open Qual. 2018;7(4):e000193.  doi:10.1136/bmjoq-2017-000193. Retrieved from:  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6173242/

                 

                1. Um IS, Clough A, Tan ECK. Dispensing error rates in pharmacy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Res Social Adm Pharm. 2024;20(1):1-9. doi:10.1016/j.sapharm.2023.10.003. Retrieved from:

                https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1551741123004552?via%3Dihub

                 

                1. Academy of Managed Care Pharmacy. Medication Errors. July 18, 2019. Retrieved from:

                https://www.amcp.org/about/managed-care-pharmacy-101/concepts-managed-care-pharmacy/medication-errors

                 

                19. James L, BM, Barlow D, McArtney R, et al. Incidence, type and causes of dispensing errors: a review of the literature. Int J Pharm Pract. 2009; 17(1): 9-30. Retrieved from:

                https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1211/ijpp.17.1.0004?sid=nlm%3Apubmed

                 

                 

                20. Pervanas HC, Revell N, Alotaibi AF. Evaluation of Medication Errors in Community Pharmacy Settings: A Retrospective Report. J Pharm Technol. 2016; 32(2): 71-74.

                 

                1. Kistner UA, Keith MR, Sergeant KA, et al. Accuracy of Dispensing in a High-Volume, Hospital Based Outpatient Pharmacy. Am J Hosp Pharm. 1994;512:793–7.

                 

                1. Allan EL, Barker KN, Malloy M, et al. Dispensing errors and counseling in community practice. Am Pharm 1995; NS35:25–33.

                 

                1. Hendren J. Overwork Threatens Druggists” Accuracy. LA Times. February 27, 2000. Retrieved from:

                https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2000-feb-27-mn-3125-story.html

                 

                1. Lopes J, Joaquim J, Matos C, Pires T. Medication errors in Community Pharmacy: Potencial Causes and strategies for Prevention. Clin Therap. 2015; 37(8 Supp): E119 (Abstract). Retrieved from:

                https://www.clinicaltherapeutics.com/article/S0149-2918(15)00648-7/fulltext

                 

                1. Catalano G, Khan MMM, Chatzipanagiotou OP, Pawlik TM. Pharmacy Accessibility and Social Vulnerability. JAMA Netw Open. 2024;7(8):e2429755. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.29755. Retrieved from:

                https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2822776

                 

                1. Trend: What is a Pharmacy Desert? TelePharm. Retrieved from:

                https://blog.telepharm.com/what-is-a-pharmacy-desert

                 

                1. Constantin J, Ullrich F, Mueller, KJ. Rural and Urban Pharmacy Presence – Pharmacy Deserts. RUPRI Center for Rural Health Policy Analysis Rural Policy Brief. August 2022. Retrieved from:

                https://rupri.public-health.uiowa.edu/publications/policybriefs/2022/Pharmacy%20Deserts.pdf

                 

                1. Constantino AK. Some Pharmacy Staff from Walgreens, Other Chains Are Walking Out Again — Here’s What You Need To Know. CNBC. October 29, 2023. Retrieved from:

                https://www.cnbc.com/2023/10/29/pharmacy-staff-from-walgreens-chains-like-cvs-to-walk-out-again.html

                 

                1. Adams AJ, Frost TP. Expunging Board of Pharmacy Disciplinary Actions. Innov Pharm. 2023;14(1):10.24926/iip.v14i1.5219. doi: 10.24926/iip.v14i1.5219. PMID: 38035318; PMCID: PMC10686669. Retrieved from:

                https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10686669/#:~:text=Boards%20of%20pharmacy%20have%20the,practice%20restrictions%2C%20fines%20and%20reprimands.

                 

                1. Holdsworth M, Wittstrom K, Yeitrakis T. Current Approaches to Punitive Action for Medication Errors by Boards of Pharmacy. Ann Pharmacother. 2013;47(4):475-81. doi: 10.1345/aph.1R668. Epub 2013 Apr 2. PMID: 23548647.

                 

                1. Long R. Chicago Moves Closer To Easing Pharmacist Workload. Chicago Tribune. October 10, 2017, Updated June 14, 2024. October 26, 2023. Retrieved from:

                https://www.chicagotribune.com/2017/10/10/chicago-moves-closer-to-easing-pharmacist-workload/

                 

                1. Illinois Statutes Ch 225. § 85/15.1. Pharmacy working conditions. Retrieved from:

                https://www.ilga.gov/legislation/ilcs/documents/022500850K15.1.htm

                 

                1. Long R, Roe S. After Tribune Investigation, Durbin Pushes Interactive Drug Protection for Consumers. Cap Gazette. December 16, 2016. Retrieved from:

                https://www.capitalgazette.com/ct-drug-interactions-durbin-pharmacy-20161216-story.html

                 

                1. 21 NC Admin Code 46 .2512. Pharmacist Work Conditions. Retrieved from:

                https://regulations.justia.com/states/north-carolina/title-21/chapter-46/section-2500/section-46-2512/

                 

                1. California. Stop Dangerous Pharmacies Act (AB 1286). 2024. Retrieved from:

                https://www.pharmacy.ca.gov/publications/ab1286_faqs.pdf

                 

                1. California State Board of Pharmacy. Medication Error Reduction and Workforce Chair Report. November 16, 2022. Retrieved from:

                https://www.pharmacy.ca.gov/meetings/agendas/2022/22_nov_med_mat.pdf

                 

                1. California Board of Pharmacy Considers New Legislation Regarding Pharmacy Workplace Conditions. Quarles Newsletter. December 19, 2022. Retrieved from:

                https://www.quarles.com/newsroom/publications/california-board-of-pharmacy-continues-to-tackle-concerns-surrounding-pharmacy-workplace-conditions

                 

                1. California Business and Professional Code. 4113.7. Retrieved from:

                https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/codes_displaySection.xhtml?sectionNum=4113.7.&lawCode=BPC

                 

                1. Oklahoma Admin Code. Section 535:15-3-16 - Adequate Staffing Rules for Pharmacists and Pharmacies. Retrieved from:

                https://casetext.com/regulation/oklahoma-administrative-code/title-535-oklahoma-state-board-of-pharmacy/chapter-15-pharmacies/subchapter-3-pharmacies/section-53515-3-16-adequate-staffing-rules-for-pharmacists-and-pharmacies

                 

                1. Ohio Board of Pharmacy. Outpatient Pharmacies Minimum Standards. Updated May1, 2024. Retrieved from:

                https://www.pharmacy.ohio.gov/documents/licensing/tddd/general/outpatient%20pharmacy%20minimum%20standards.pdf

                 

                41. Schladen M. New Ohio Pharmacy Rules to Take Effect in May. Ohio Cap J. April 1, 2024. Retrieved from:

                https://ohiocapitaljournal.com/2024/04/01/new-ohio-pharmacy-rules-to-take-effect-in-may/

                 

                1. The National Incident Data Repository for Community Pharmacies (NIDR)

                Information and Frequently Asked Questions. Institute for Safe Medication Practices Canada. September 2023. Retrieved from:

                https://ismpcanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/NIDR-faq.pdf

                 

                1. Frost TP, Adams AJ. Tech-Check-Tech in Community Pharmacy Practice Settings. J Pharm Technol. 2017;33(2):47–52. doi: 10.1177/8755122516683519. Epub 2016 Apr 1. PMCID: PMC5998445. Retrieved from:

                https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5998445/#:~:text=TCT%20enables%20a%20specially%20trained,in%20an%20automated%20dispensing%20system.

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                REFERENCES

                 

                1. Semuels A. Why Your Pharmacy Experience is Miserable. Time. September 18, 2024.

                Accessed from:

                https://time.com/7022116/pharmacies-struggling/?utm_medium=email&utm_source=sfmc&utm_campaign=newsletter+brief+default+ac&utm_content=+++20240920+++body&et_rid=273534511&lctg=273534511

                 

                1. Rebelo A. US Survey Signals Big Shifts in Primary Care to Pharmacy and Clinic Settings as Consumers Seek Lower Medication and Healthcare Costs. Wolters Kluver. December 7, 2022. Accessed from:

                https://www.wolterskluwer.com/en/news/us-survey-signals-big-shifts-in-primary-care-to-pharmacy-and-clinic-settings

                 

                1. JD Power. As Mail Order Pharmacies Continue to Climb in Customer Satisfaction, Chain Drug Stores Fall Behind, J.D. Power Finds. JD Power. July 30, 2024. Accessed from:

                https://www.jdpower.com/sites/default/files/file/2024-07/2024074%20U.S.%20Pharmacy.pdf

                 

                1. American Pharmacists Association. APhA and NASPA Release Eighth PWWR Report and Learnings. March 18, 2024. Accessed from:

                https://www.pharmacist.com/APhA-Press-Releases/apha-and-naspa-release-eighth-pwwr-report-and-learnings

                 

                1. Goodkind N. Why Walgreens Pharmacy Workers Are Walking Off the Job. CNN Business. October 10, 2023. Accessed from:

                https://www.cnn.com/2023/10/10/economy/walgreens-pharmacy-walkouts/index.html

                 

                1. Schommer JC, Gaither CA, Lee S, et al. 2021 APhA/NASPA National State-Based Pharmacy Workplace Survey. American Pharmacists Association. Final Report April 2022.

                Accessed from:

                https://naspa.us/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/National-State-Based-Pharmacy-Workplace-Survey-Final-Report-APRIL-2022-FINAL.pdf#page=12.06

                 

                1. Total number of medical prescriptions dispensed in the U.S. from 2009 to 2022.

                Statista. Accessed from:

                https://www.statista.com/statistics/238702/us-total-medical-prescriptions-issued/

                 

                1. Wittenauer R, Shah PD, Bacci JL, Stergachis A. Locations and Characteristics of Pharmacy Deserts in the United States: A Geospatial Study. Health Aff Sch. 2024; 2(4):qxae035. doi: 10.1093/haschl/qxae035. Accessed from:

                https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11034534/

                 

                1. Grabenstein JD. Essential services: Quantifying the contributions of America's pharmacists in COVID-19 clinical interventions. J Am Pharm Assoc. 2022;62(6):1929-1945.e1. doi: 10.1016/j.japh.2022.08.010. Epub 2022 Aug 18. PMID: 36202712; PMCID: PMC9387064. Accessed from:

                https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9387064/

                 

                10. Roe S, Long R, King K. Pharmacists Miss Half of Dangerous Drug Combinations. Chicago Tribune. December 2016. Retrieved from: https://www.chicagotribune.com/investigations/ct-drug-interactions-pharmacy-met-20161214-story.html

                 

                1. Gabler E. At Walgreens, Complaints of Medication Errors Go Missing. NY Times. Updated October 13, 2021. Accessed from:

                https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/21/health/pharmacies-prescription-errors.html

                 

                12. Gabler E. How Chaos at Chain Pharmacies is Putting Patients at Risk. NY Times. January 31, 2020. Retrieved from:

                https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/31/health/pharmacists-medication-errors.html

                 

                1. Le Coz E. Prescription for Disaster: America's Broken Pharmacy System in Revolt Over Burnout and Errors. USA Today. October 26, 2023. Retrieved from:

                https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/investigations/2023/10/26/pharmacy-chains-dangerous-conditions-medication-errors/71153960007/

                 

                14. Bond CA Raehl CL. Pharmacists' Assessment of Dispensing Errors: Risk Factors, Practice Sites, Professional Functions, and Satisfaction. Pharmacotherapy. 2001; 21(5): 614-626.

                 

                15. Flynn EA, Barker KN, Carnahan BJ. National Observational Study of Prescription Dispensing Accuracy and Safety in 50 Pharmacies. J APhA. 2001; 43(2): 191-200.

                 

                16. Campbell PJ, Patel M, Martin JR, et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis of community pharmacy error rates in the USA: 1993-2015. BMJ Open Qual. 2018;7(4):e000193.  doi:10.1136/bmjoq-2017-000193. Retrieved from:  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6173242/

                 

                1. Um IS, Clough A, Tan ECK. Dispensing error rates in pharmacy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Res Social Adm Pharm. 2024;20(1):1-9. doi:10.1016/j.sapharm.2023.10.003. Retrieved from:

                https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1551741123004552?via%3Dihub

                 

                1. Academy of Managed Care Pharmacy. Medication Errors. July 18, 2019. Retrieved from:

                https://www.amcp.org/about/managed-care-pharmacy-101/concepts-managed-care-pharmacy/medication-errors

                 

                19. James L, BM, Barlow D, McArtney R, et al. Incidence, type and causes of dispensing errors: a review of the literature. Int J Pharm Pract. 2009; 17(1): 9-30. Retrieved from:

                https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1211/ijpp.17.1.0004?sid=nlm%3Apubmed

                 

                 

                20. Pervanas HC, Revell N, Alotaibi AF. Evaluation of Medication Errors in Community Pharmacy Settings: A Retrospective Report. J Pharm Technol. 2016; 32(2): 71-74.

                 

                1. Kistner UA, Keith MR, Sergeant KA, et al. Accuracy of Dispensing in a High-Volume, Hospital Based Outpatient Pharmacy. Am J Hosp Pharm. 1994;512:793–7.

                 

                1. Allan EL, Barker KN, Malloy M, et al. Dispensing errors and counseling in community practice. Am Pharm 1995; NS35:25–33.

                 

                1. Hendren J. Overwork Threatens Druggists” Accuracy. LA Times. February 27, 2000. Retrieved from:

                https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2000-feb-27-mn-3125-story.html

                 

                1. Lopes J, Joaquim J, Matos C, Pires T. Medication errors in Community Pharmacy: Potencial Causes and strategies for Prevention. Clin Therap. 2015; 37(8 Supp): E119 (Abstract). Retrieved from:

                https://www.clinicaltherapeutics.com/article/S0149-2918(15)00648-7/fulltext

                 

                1. Catalano G, Khan MMM, Chatzipanagiotou OP, Pawlik TM. Pharmacy Accessibility and Social Vulnerability. JAMA Netw Open. 2024;7(8):e2429755. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.29755. Retrieved from:

                https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2822776

                 

                1. Trend: What is a Pharmacy Desert? TelePharm. Retrieved from:

                https://blog.telepharm.com/what-is-a-pharmacy-desert

                 

                1. Constantin J, Ullrich F, Mueller, KJ. Rural and Urban Pharmacy Presence – Pharmacy Deserts. RUPRI Center for Rural Health Policy Analysis Rural Policy Brief. August 2022. Retrieved from:

                https://rupri.public-health.uiowa.edu/publications/policybriefs/2022/Pharmacy%20Deserts.pdf

                 

                1. Constantino AK. Some Pharmacy Staff from Walgreens, Other Chains Are Walking Out Again — Here’s What You Need To Know. CNBC. October 29, 2023. Retrieved from:

                https://www.cnbc.com/2023/10/29/pharmacy-staff-from-walgreens-chains-like-cvs-to-walk-out-again.html

                 

                1. Adams AJ, Frost TP. Expunging Board of Pharmacy Disciplinary Actions. Innov Pharm. 2023;14(1):10.24926/iip.v14i1.5219. doi: 10.24926/iip.v14i1.5219. PMID: 38035318; PMCID: PMC10686669. Retrieved from:

                https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10686669/#:~:text=Boards%20of%20pharmacy%20have%20the,practice%20restrictions%2C%20fines%20and%20reprimands.

                 

                1. Holdsworth M, Wittstrom K, Yeitrakis T. Current Approaches to Punitive Action for Medication Errors by Boards of Pharmacy. Ann Pharmacother. 2013;47(4):475-81. doi: 10.1345/aph.1R668. Epub 2013 Apr 2. PMID: 23548647.

                 

                1. Long R. Chicago Moves Closer To Easing Pharmacist Workload. Chicago Tribune. October 10, 2017, Updated June 14, 2024. October 26, 2023. Retrieved from:

                https://www.chicagotribune.com/2017/10/10/chicago-moves-closer-to-easing-pharmacist-workload/

                 

                1. Illinois Statutes Ch 225. § 85/15.1. Pharmacy working conditions. Retrieved from:

                https://www.ilga.gov/legislation/ilcs/documents/022500850K15.1.htm

                 

                1. Long R, Roe S. After Tribune Investigation, Durbin Pushes Interactive Drug Protection for Consumers. Cap Gazette. December 16, 2016. Retrieved from:

                https://www.capitalgazette.com/ct-drug-interactions-durbin-pharmacy-20161216-story.html

                 

                1. 21 NC Admin Code 46 .2512. Pharmacist Work Conditions. Retrieved from:

                https://regulations.justia.com/states/north-carolina/title-21/chapter-46/section-2500/section-46-2512/

                 

                1. California. Stop Dangerous Pharmacies Act (AB 1286). 2024. Retrieved from:

                https://www.pharmacy.ca.gov/publications/ab1286_faqs.pdf

                 

                1. California State Board of Pharmacy. Medication Error Reduction and Workforce Chair Report. November 16, 2022. Retrieved from:

                https://www.pharmacy.ca.gov/meetings/agendas/2022/22_nov_med_mat.pdf

                 

                1. California Board of Pharmacy Considers New Legislation Regarding Pharmacy Workplace Conditions. Quarles Newsletter. December 19, 2022. Retrieved from:

                https://www.quarles.com/newsroom/publications/california-board-of-pharmacy-continues-to-tackle-concerns-surrounding-pharmacy-workplace-conditions

                 

                1. California Business and Professional Code. 4113.7. Retrieved from:

                https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/codes_displaySection.xhtml?sectionNum=4113.7.&lawCode=BPC

                 

                1. Oklahoma Admin Code. Section 535:15-3-16 - Adequate Staffing Rules for Pharmacists and Pharmacies. Retrieved from:

                https://casetext.com/regulation/oklahoma-administrative-code/title-535-oklahoma-state-board-of-pharmacy/chapter-15-pharmacies/subchapter-3-pharmacies/section-53515-3-16-adequate-staffing-rules-for-pharmacists-and-pharmacies

                 

                1. Ohio Board of Pharmacy. Outpatient Pharmacies Minimum Standards. Updated May1, 2024. Retrieved from:

                https://www.pharmacy.ohio.gov/documents/licensing/tddd/general/outpatient%20pharmacy%20minimum%20standards.pdf

                 

                41. Schladen M. New Ohio Pharmacy Rules to Take Effect in May. Ohio Cap J. April 1, 2024. Retrieved from:

                https://ohiocapitaljournal.com/2024/04/01/new-ohio-pharmacy-rules-to-take-effect-in-may/

                 

                1. The National Incident Data Repository for Community Pharmacies (NIDR)

                Information and Frequently Asked Questions. Institute for Safe Medication Practices Canada. September 2023. Retrieved from:

                https://ismpcanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/NIDR-faq.pdf

                 

                1. Frost TP, Adams AJ. Tech-Check-Tech in Community Pharmacy Practice Settings. J Pharm Technol. 2017;33(2):47–52. doi: 10.1177/8755122516683519. Epub 2016 Apr 1. PMCID: PMC5998445. Retrieved from:

                https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5998445/#:~:text=TCT%20enables%20a%20specially%20trained,in%20an%20automated%20dispensing%20system.

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                REFERENCES

                 

                1. Semuels A. Why Your Pharmacy Experience is Miserable. Time. September 18, 2024.

                Accessed from:

                https://time.com/7022116/pharmacies-struggling/?utm_medium=email&utm_source=sfmc&utm_campaign=newsletter+brief+default+ac&utm_content=+++20240920+++body&et_rid=273534511&lctg=273534511

                 

                1. Rebelo A. US Survey Signals Big Shifts in Primary Care to Pharmacy and Clinic Settings as Consumers Seek Lower Medication and Healthcare Costs. Wolters Kluver. December 7, 2022. Accessed from:

                https://www.wolterskluwer.com/en/news/us-survey-signals-big-shifts-in-primary-care-to-pharmacy-and-clinic-settings

                 

                1. JD Power. As Mail Order Pharmacies Continue to Climb in Customer Satisfaction, Chain Drug Stores Fall Behind, J.D. Power Finds. JD Power. July 30, 2024. Accessed from:

                https://www.jdpower.com/sites/default/files/file/2024-07/2024074%20U.S.%20Pharmacy.pdf

                 

                1. American Pharmacists Association. APhA and NASPA Release Eighth PWWR Report and Learnings. March 18, 2024. Accessed from:

                https://www.pharmacist.com/APhA-Press-Releases/apha-and-naspa-release-eighth-pwwr-report-and-learnings

                 

                1. Goodkind N. Why Walgreens Pharmacy Workers Are Walking Off the Job. CNN Business. October 10, 2023. Accessed from:

                https://www.cnn.com/2023/10/10/economy/walgreens-pharmacy-walkouts/index.html

                 

                1. Schommer JC, Gaither CA, Lee S, et al. 2021 APhA/NASPA National State-Based Pharmacy Workplace Survey. American Pharmacists Association. Final Report April 2022.

                Accessed from:

                https://naspa.us/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/National-State-Based-Pharmacy-Workplace-Survey-Final-Report-APRIL-2022-FINAL.pdf#page=12.06

                 

                1. Total number of medical prescriptions dispensed in the U.S. from 2009 to 2022.

                Statista. Accessed from:

                https://www.statista.com/statistics/238702/us-total-medical-prescriptions-issued/

                 

                1. Wittenauer R, Shah PD, Bacci JL, Stergachis A. Locations and Characteristics of Pharmacy Deserts in the United States: A Geospatial Study. Health Aff Sch. 2024; 2(4):qxae035. doi: 10.1093/haschl/qxae035. Accessed from:

                https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11034534/

                 

                1. Grabenstein JD. Essential services: Quantifying the contributions of America's pharmacists in COVID-19 clinical interventions. J Am Pharm Assoc. 2022;62(6):1929-1945.e1. doi: 10.1016/j.japh.2022.08.010. Epub 2022 Aug 18. PMID: 36202712; PMCID: PMC9387064. Accessed from:

                https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9387064/

                 

                10. Roe S, Long R, King K. Pharmacists Miss Half of Dangerous Drug Combinations. Chicago Tribune. December 2016. Retrieved from: https://www.chicagotribune.com/investigations/ct-drug-interactions-pharmacy-met-20161214-story.html

                 

                1. Gabler E. At Walgreens, Complaints of Medication Errors Go Missing. NY Times. Updated October 13, 2021. Accessed from:

                https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/21/health/pharmacies-prescription-errors.html

                 

                12. Gabler E. How Chaos at Chain Pharmacies is Putting Patients at Risk. NY Times. January 31, 2020. Retrieved from:

                https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/31/health/pharmacists-medication-errors.html

                 

                1. Le Coz E. Prescription for Disaster: America's Broken Pharmacy System in Revolt Over Burnout and Errors. USA Today. October 26, 2023. Retrieved from:

                https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/investigations/2023/10/26/pharmacy-chains-dangerous-conditions-medication-errors/71153960007/

                 

                14. Bond CA Raehl CL. Pharmacists' Assessment of Dispensing Errors: Risk Factors, Practice Sites, Professional Functions, and Satisfaction. Pharmacotherapy. 2001; 21(5): 614-626.

                 

                15. Flynn EA, Barker KN, Carnahan BJ. National Observational Study of Prescription Dispensing Accuracy and Safety in 50 Pharmacies. J APhA. 2001; 43(2): 191-200.

                 

                16. Campbell PJ, Patel M, Martin JR, et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis of community pharmacy error rates in the USA: 1993-2015. BMJ Open Qual. 2018;7(4):e000193.  doi:10.1136/bmjoq-2017-000193. Retrieved from:  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6173242/

                 

                1. Um IS, Clough A, Tan ECK. Dispensing error rates in pharmacy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Res Social Adm Pharm. 2024;20(1):1-9. doi:10.1016/j.sapharm.2023.10.003. Retrieved from:

                https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1551741123004552?via%3Dihub

                 

                1. Academy of Managed Care Pharmacy. Medication Errors. July 18, 2019. Retrieved from:

                https://www.amcp.org/about/managed-care-pharmacy-101/concepts-managed-care-pharmacy/medication-errors

                 

                19. James L, BM, Barlow D, McArtney R, et al. Incidence, type and causes of dispensing errors: a review of the literature. Int J Pharm Pract. 2009; 17(1): 9-30. Retrieved from:

                https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1211/ijpp.17.1.0004?sid=nlm%3Apubmed

                 

                 

                20. Pervanas HC, Revell N, Alotaibi AF. Evaluation of Medication Errors in Community Pharmacy Settings: A Retrospective Report. J Pharm Technol. 2016; 32(2): 71-74.

                 

                1. Kistner UA, Keith MR, Sergeant KA, et al. Accuracy of Dispensing in a High-Volume, Hospital Based Outpatient Pharmacy. Am J Hosp Pharm. 1994;512:793–7.

                 

                1. Allan EL, Barker KN, Malloy M, et al. Dispensing errors and counseling in community practice. Am Pharm 1995; NS35:25–33.

                 

                1. Hendren J. Overwork Threatens Druggists” Accuracy. LA Times. February 27, 2000. Retrieved from:

                https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2000-feb-27-mn-3125-story.html

                 

                1. Lopes J, Joaquim J, Matos C, Pires T. Medication errors in Community Pharmacy: Potencial Causes and strategies for Prevention. Clin Therap. 2015; 37(8 Supp): E119 (Abstract). Retrieved from:

                https://www.clinicaltherapeutics.com/article/S0149-2918(15)00648-7/fulltext

                 

                1. Catalano G, Khan MMM, Chatzipanagiotou OP, Pawlik TM. Pharmacy Accessibility and Social Vulnerability. JAMA Netw Open. 2024;7(8):e2429755. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.29755. Retrieved from:

                https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2822776

                 

                1. Trend: What is a Pharmacy Desert? TelePharm. Retrieved from:

                https://blog.telepharm.com/what-is-a-pharmacy-desert

                 

                1. Constantin J, Ullrich F, Mueller, KJ. Rural and Urban Pharmacy Presence – Pharmacy Deserts. RUPRI Center for Rural Health Policy Analysis Rural Policy Brief. August 2022. Retrieved from:

                https://rupri.public-health.uiowa.edu/publications/policybriefs/2022/Pharmacy%20Deserts.pdf

                 

                1. Constantino AK. Some Pharmacy Staff from Walgreens, Other Chains Are Walking Out Again — Here’s What You Need To Know. CNBC. October 29, 2023. Retrieved from:

                https://www.cnbc.com/2023/10/29/pharmacy-staff-from-walgreens-chains-like-cvs-to-walk-out-again.html

                 

                1. Adams AJ, Frost TP. Expunging Board of Pharmacy Disciplinary Actions. Innov Pharm. 2023;14(1):10.24926/iip.v14i1.5219. doi: 10.24926/iip.v14i1.5219. PMID: 38035318; PMCID: PMC10686669. Retrieved from:

                https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10686669/#:~:text=Boards%20of%20pharmacy%20have%20the,practice%20restrictions%2C%20fines%20and%20reprimands.

                 

                1. Holdsworth M, Wittstrom K, Yeitrakis T. Current Approaches to Punitive Action for Medication Errors by Boards of Pharmacy. Ann Pharmacother. 2013;47(4):475-81. doi: 10.1345/aph.1R668. Epub 2013 Apr 2. PMID: 23548647.

                 

                1. Long R. Chicago Moves Closer To Easing Pharmacist Workload. Chicago Tribune. October 10, 2017, Updated June 14, 2024. October 26, 2023. Retrieved from:

                https://www.chicagotribune.com/2017/10/10/chicago-moves-closer-to-easing-pharmacist-workload/

                 

                1. Illinois Statutes Ch 225. § 85/15.1. Pharmacy working conditions. Retrieved from:

                https://www.ilga.gov/legislation/ilcs/documents/022500850K15.1.htm

                 

                1. Long R, Roe S. After Tribune Investigation, Durbin Pushes Interactive Drug Protection for Consumers. Cap Gazette. December 16, 2016. Retrieved from:

                https://www.capitalgazette.com/ct-drug-interactions-durbin-pharmacy-20161216-story.html

                 

                1. 21 NC Admin Code 46 .2512. Pharmacist Work Conditions. Retrieved from:

                https://regulations.justia.com/states/north-carolina/title-21/chapter-46/section-2500/section-46-2512/

                 

                1. California. Stop Dangerous Pharmacies Act (AB 1286). 2024. Retrieved from:

                https://www.pharmacy.ca.gov/publications/ab1286_faqs.pdf

                 

                1. California State Board of Pharmacy. Medication Error Reduction and Workforce Chair Report. November 16, 2022. Retrieved from:

                https://www.pharmacy.ca.gov/meetings/agendas/2022/22_nov_med_mat.pdf

                 

                1. California Board of Pharmacy Considers New Legislation Regarding Pharmacy Workplace Conditions. Quarles Newsletter. December 19, 2022. Retrieved from:

                https://www.quarles.com/newsroom/publications/california-board-of-pharmacy-continues-to-tackle-concerns-surrounding-pharmacy-workplace-conditions

                 

                1. California Business and Professional Code. 4113.7. Retrieved from:

                https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/codes_displaySection.xhtml?sectionNum=4113.7.&lawCode=BPC

                 

                1. Oklahoma Admin Code. Section 535:15-3-16 - Adequate Staffing Rules for Pharmacists and Pharmacies. Retrieved from:

                https://casetext.com/regulation/oklahoma-administrative-code/title-535-oklahoma-state-board-of-pharmacy/chapter-15-pharmacies/subchapter-3-pharmacies/section-53515-3-16-adequate-staffing-rules-for-pharmacists-and-pharmacies

                 

                1. Ohio Board of Pharmacy. Outpatient Pharmacies Minimum Standards. Updated May1, 2024. Retrieved from:

                https://www.pharmacy.ohio.gov/documents/licensing/tddd/general/outpatient%20pharmacy%20minimum%20standards.pdf

                 

                41. Schladen M. New Ohio Pharmacy Rules to Take Effect in May. Ohio Cap J. April 1, 2024. Retrieved from:

                https://ohiocapitaljournal.com/2024/04/01/new-ohio-pharmacy-rules-to-take-effect-in-may/

                 

                1. The National Incident Data Repository for Community Pharmacies (NIDR)

                Information and Frequently Asked Questions. Institute for Safe Medication Practices Canada. September 2023. Retrieved from:

                https://ismpcanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/NIDR-faq.pdf

                 

                1. Frost TP, Adams AJ. Tech-Check-Tech in Community Pharmacy Practice Settings. J Pharm Technol. 2017;33(2):47–52. doi: 10.1177/8755122516683519. Epub 2016 Apr 1. PMCID: PMC5998445. Retrieved from:

                https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5998445/#:~:text=TCT%20enables%20a%20specially%20trained,in%20an%20automated%20dispensing%20system.

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                REFERENCES

                 

                1. Semuels A. Why Your Pharmacy Experience is Miserable. Time. September 18, 2024.

                Accessed from:

                https://time.com/7022116/pharmacies-struggling/?utm_medium=email&utm_source=sfmc&utm_campaign=newsletter+brief+default+ac&utm_content=+++20240920+++body&et_rid=273534511&lctg=273534511

                 

                1. Rebelo A. US Survey Signals Big Shifts in Primary Care to Pharmacy and Clinic Settings as Consumers Seek Lower Medication and Healthcare Costs. Wolters Kluver. December 7, 2022. Accessed from:

                https://www.wolterskluwer.com/en/news/us-survey-signals-big-shifts-in-primary-care-to-pharmacy-and-clinic-settings

                 

                1. JD Power. As Mail Order Pharmacies Continue to Climb in Customer Satisfaction, Chain Drug Stores Fall Behind, J.D. Power Finds. JD Power. July 30, 2024. Accessed from:

                https://www.jdpower.com/sites/default/files/file/2024-07/2024074%20U.S.%20Pharmacy.pdf

                 

                1. American Pharmacists Association. APhA and NASPA Release Eighth PWWR Report and Learnings. March 18, 2024. Accessed from:

                https://www.pharmacist.com/APhA-Press-Releases/apha-and-naspa-release-eighth-pwwr-report-and-learnings

                 

                1. Goodkind N. Why Walgreens Pharmacy Workers Are Walking Off the Job. CNN Business. October 10, 2023. Accessed from:

                https://www.cnn.com/2023/10/10/economy/walgreens-pharmacy-walkouts/index.html

                 

                1. Schommer JC, Gaither CA, Lee S, et al. 2021 APhA/NASPA National State-Based Pharmacy Workplace Survey. American Pharmacists Association. Final Report April 2022.

                Accessed from:

                https://naspa.us/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/National-State-Based-Pharmacy-Workplace-Survey-Final-Report-APRIL-2022-FINAL.pdf#page=12.06

                 

                1. Total number of medical prescriptions dispensed in the U.S. from 2009 to 2022.

                Statista. Accessed from:

                https://www.statista.com/statistics/238702/us-total-medical-prescriptions-issued/

                 

                1. Wittenauer R, Shah PD, Bacci JL, Stergachis A. Locations and Characteristics of Pharmacy Deserts in the United States: A Geospatial Study. Health Aff Sch. 2024; 2(4):qxae035. doi: 10.1093/haschl/qxae035. Accessed from:

                https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11034534/

                 

                1. Grabenstein JD. Essential services: Quantifying the contributions of America's pharmacists in COVID-19 clinical interventions. J Am Pharm Assoc. 2022;62(6):1929-1945.e1. doi: 10.1016/j.japh.2022.08.010. Epub 2022 Aug 18. PMID: 36202712; PMCID: PMC9387064. Accessed from:

                https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9387064/

                 

                10. Roe S, Long R, King K. Pharmacists Miss Half of Dangerous Drug Combinations. Chicago Tribune. December 2016. Retrieved from: https://www.chicagotribune.com/investigations/ct-drug-interactions-pharmacy-met-20161214-story.html

                 

                1. Gabler E. At Walgreens, Complaints of Medication Errors Go Missing. NY Times. Updated October 13, 2021. Accessed from:

                https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/21/health/pharmacies-prescription-errors.html

                 

                12. Gabler E. How Chaos at Chain Pharmacies is Putting Patients at Risk. NY Times. January 31, 2020. Retrieved from:

                https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/31/health/pharmacists-medication-errors.html

                 

                1. Le Coz E. Prescription for Disaster: America's Broken Pharmacy System in Revolt Over Burnout and Errors. USA Today. October 26, 2023. Retrieved from:

                https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/investigations/2023/10/26/pharmacy-chains-dangerous-conditions-medication-errors/71153960007/

                 

                14. Bond CA Raehl CL. Pharmacists' Assessment of Dispensing Errors: Risk Factors, Practice Sites, Professional Functions, and Satisfaction. Pharmacotherapy. 2001; 21(5): 614-626.

                 

                15. Flynn EA, Barker KN, Carnahan BJ. National Observational Study of Prescription Dispensing Accuracy and Safety in 50 Pharmacies. J APhA. 2001; 43(2): 191-200.

                 

                16. Campbell PJ, Patel M, Martin JR, et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis of community pharmacy error rates in the USA: 1993-2015. BMJ Open Qual. 2018;7(4):e000193.  doi:10.1136/bmjoq-2017-000193. Retrieved from:  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6173242/

                 

                1. Um IS, Clough A, Tan ECK. Dispensing error rates in pharmacy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Res Social Adm Pharm. 2024;20(1):1-9. doi:10.1016/j.sapharm.2023.10.003. Retrieved from:

                https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1551741123004552?via%3Dihub

                 

                1. Academy of Managed Care Pharmacy. Medication Errors. July 18, 2019. Retrieved from:

                https://www.amcp.org/about/managed-care-pharmacy-101/concepts-managed-care-pharmacy/medication-errors

                 

                19. James L, BM, Barlow D, McArtney R, et al. Incidence, type and causes of dispensing errors: a review of the literature. Int J Pharm Pract. 2009; 17(1): 9-30. Retrieved from:

                https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1211/ijpp.17.1.0004?sid=nlm%3Apubmed

                 

                 

                20. Pervanas HC, Revell N, Alotaibi AF. Evaluation of Medication Errors in Community Pharmacy Settings: A Retrospective Report. J Pharm Technol. 2016; 32(2): 71-74.

                 

                1. Kistner UA, Keith MR, Sergeant KA, et al. Accuracy of Dispensing in a High-Volume, Hospital Based Outpatient Pharmacy. Am J Hosp Pharm. 1994;512:793–7.

                 

                1. Allan EL, Barker KN, Malloy M, et al. Dispensing errors and counseling in community practice. Am Pharm 1995; NS35:25–33.

                 

                1. Hendren J. Overwork Threatens Druggists” Accuracy. LA Times. February 27, 2000. Retrieved from:

                https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2000-feb-27-mn-3125-story.html

                 

                1. Lopes J, Joaquim J, Matos C, Pires T. Medication errors in Community Pharmacy: Potencial Causes and strategies for Prevention. Clin Therap. 2015; 37(8 Supp): E119 (Abstract). Retrieved from:

                https://www.clinicaltherapeutics.com/article/S0149-2918(15)00648-7/fulltext

                 

                1. Catalano G, Khan MMM, Chatzipanagiotou OP, Pawlik TM. Pharmacy Accessibility and Social Vulnerability. JAMA Netw Open. 2024;7(8):e2429755. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.29755. Retrieved from:

                https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2822776

                 

                1. Trend: What is a Pharmacy Desert? TelePharm. Retrieved from:

                https://blog.telepharm.com/what-is-a-pharmacy-desert

                 

                1. Constantin J, Ullrich F, Mueller, KJ. Rural and Urban Pharmacy Presence – Pharmacy Deserts. RUPRI Center for Rural Health Policy Analysis Rural Policy Brief. August 2022. Retrieved from:

                https://rupri.public-health.uiowa.edu/publications/policybriefs/2022/Pharmacy%20Deserts.pdf

                 

                1. Constantino AK. Some Pharmacy Staff from Walgreens, Other Chains Are Walking Out Again — Here’s What You Need To Know. CNBC. October 29, 2023. Retrieved from:

                https://www.cnbc.com/2023/10/29/pharmacy-staff-from-walgreens-chains-like-cvs-to-walk-out-again.html

                 

                1. Adams AJ, Frost TP. Expunging Board of Pharmacy Disciplinary Actions. Innov Pharm. 2023;14(1):10.24926/iip.v14i1.5219. doi: 10.24926/iip.v14i1.5219. PMID: 38035318; PMCID: PMC10686669. Retrieved from:

                https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10686669/#:~:text=Boards%20of%20pharmacy%20have%20the,practice%20restrictions%2C%20fines%20and%20reprimands.

                 

                1. Holdsworth M, Wittstrom K, Yeitrakis T. Current Approaches to Punitive Action for Medication Errors by Boards of Pharmacy. Ann Pharmacother. 2013;47(4):475-81. doi: 10.1345/aph.1R668. Epub 2013 Apr 2. PMID: 23548647.

                 

                1. Long R. Chicago Moves Closer To Easing Pharmacist Workload. Chicago Tribune. October 10, 2017, Updated June 14, 2024. October 26, 2023. Retrieved from:

                https://www.chicagotribune.com/2017/10/10/chicago-moves-closer-to-easing-pharmacist-workload/

                 

                1. Illinois Statutes Ch 225. § 85/15.1. Pharmacy working conditions. Retrieved from:

                https://www.ilga.gov/legislation/ilcs/documents/022500850K15.1.htm

                 

                1. Long R, Roe S. After Tribune Investigation, Durbin Pushes Interactive Drug Protection for Consumers. Cap Gazette. December 16, 2016. Retrieved from:

                https://www.capitalgazette.com/ct-drug-interactions-durbin-pharmacy-20161216-story.html

                 

                1. 21 NC Admin Code 46 .2512. Pharmacist Work Conditions. Retrieved from:

                https://regulations.justia.com/states/north-carolina/title-21/chapter-46/section-2500/section-46-2512/

                 

                1. California. Stop Dangerous Pharmacies Act (AB 1286). 2024. Retrieved from:

                https://www.pharmacy.ca.gov/publications/ab1286_faqs.pdf

                 

                1. California State Board of Pharmacy. Medication Error Reduction and Workforce Chair Report. November 16, 2022. Retrieved from:

                https://www.pharmacy.ca.gov/meetings/agendas/2022/22_nov_med_mat.pdf

                 

                1. California Board of Pharmacy Considers New Legislation Regarding Pharmacy Workplace Conditions. Quarles Newsletter. December 19, 2022. Retrieved from:

                https://www.quarles.com/newsroom/publications/california-board-of-pharmacy-continues-to-tackle-concerns-surrounding-pharmacy-workplace-conditions

                 

                1. California Business and Professional Code. 4113.7. Retrieved from:

                https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/codes_displaySection.xhtml?sectionNum=4113.7.&lawCode=BPC

                 

                1. Oklahoma Admin Code. Section 535:15-3-16 - Adequate Staffing Rules for Pharmacists and Pharmacies. Retrieved from:

                https://casetext.com/regulation/oklahoma-administrative-code/title-535-oklahoma-state-board-of-pharmacy/chapter-15-pharmacies/subchapter-3-pharmacies/section-53515-3-16-adequate-staffing-rules-for-pharmacists-and-pharmacies

                 

                1. Ohio Board of Pharmacy. Outpatient Pharmacies Minimum Standards. Updated May1, 2024. Retrieved from:

                https://www.pharmacy.ohio.gov/documents/licensing/tddd/general/outpatient%20pharmacy%20minimum%20standards.pdf

                 

                41. Schladen M. New Ohio Pharmacy Rules to Take Effect in May. Ohio Cap J. April 1, 2024. Retrieved from:

                https://ohiocapitaljournal.com/2024/04/01/new-ohio-pharmacy-rules-to-take-effect-in-may/

                 

                1. The National Incident Data Repository for Community Pharmacies (NIDR)

                Information and Frequently Asked Questions. Institute for Safe Medication Practices Canada. September 2023. Retrieved from:

                https://ismpcanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/NIDR-faq.pdf

                 

                1. Frost TP, Adams AJ. Tech-Check-Tech in Community Pharmacy Practice Settings. J Pharm Technol. 2017;33(2):47–52. doi: 10.1177/8755122516683519. Epub 2016 Apr 1. PMCID: PMC5998445. Retrieved from:

                https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5998445/#:~:text=TCT%20enables%20a%20specially%20trained,in%20an%20automated%20dispensing%20system.

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 

                LAW: Kratom and Knock-offs: Should You Leaf Them Alone?

                Learning Objectives

                 

                After completing this application-based continuing education activity, pharmacists and pharmacy technicians will be able to

                •        Describe natural kratom products and related chemicals
                •        Differentiate the effects of naturally derived kratom products and those associated with 7-OH-MG or mitragynine pseudoindoxyl
                •        List points of significance important to educating others about products related to kratom

                Kratom-related products behind a convenience store glass counter. Products include 7-hydroxymitragynine tablets and caramel taffy.

                Release Date:

                Release Date: March 15, 2025

                Expiration Date: March 15, 2028

                Course Fee

                Pharmacist:  $7

                Pharmacy Technician: $4

                ACPE UANs

                Pharmacist: 0009-0000-25-004-H03-P

                Pharmacy Technician: 0009-0000-25-004-H03-T

                Session Codes

                Pharmacist:  25YC04-VKA34

                Pharmacy Technician:  25YC04-AKV68

                Accreditation Hours

                2.0 hours of CE

                Accreditation Statements

                The University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy is accredited by the Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education as a provider of continuing pharmacy education.  Statements of credit for the online activity ACPE UAN 0009-0000-25-004-H03-P/T  will be awarded when the post test and evaluation have been completed and passed with a 70% or better. Your CE credits will be uploaded to your CPE monitor profile within 2 weeks of completion of the program.

                 

                Disclosure of Discussions of Off-label and Investigational Drug Use

                The material presented here does not necessarily reflect the views of The University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy or its co-sponsor affiliates. These materials may discuss uses and dosages for therapeutic products, processes, procedures and inferred diagnoses that have not been approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration. A qualified health care professional should be consulted before using any therapeutic product discussed. All readers and continuing education participants should verify all information and data before treating patients or employing any therapies described in this continuing education activity.

                Faculty

                Amy Nieto PharmD Candidate 2026
                UConn School of Pharmacy
                Storrs, CT

                Michael White PharmD, FCP, FCCP, FASHP
                Distinguished Professor and Chair, Pharmacy Practice
                UConn School of Pharmacy
                Storrs, CT

                Jeannette Y. Wick, RPh, FBA, FASCP
                Director, Office of Pharmacy Professional Development
                UConn School of Pharmacy
                Storrs, CT

                Faculty Disclosure

                In accordance with the Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education (ACPE) Criteria for Quality and Interpretive Guidelines, The University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy requires that faculty disclose any relationship that the faculty may have with commercial entities whose products or services may be mentioned in the activity.

                Dr. White and Ms. Wick and Nieto have no relationship with ineligible companies and therefore have nothing to disclose.

                ABSTRACT

                People native to Southeast Asia have a deep-rooted history of using kratom, derived from the whole fresh or dried leaves of tropical Mitragyna speciosa trees, dating back centuries. In recent years, kratom-containing products have garnered popularity within the recreational drug market. Consumers can purchase these products in smoke shops, convenience stores, gas stations, and over the Internet without a prescription. Kratom remains a Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) substance of concern but is not currently scheduled. Notable changes have occurred in the kratom product marketplace. Many products now contain high concentrations of a metabolite 7-hydroxymitragynine (7-OH-MG) or its metabolite mitragynine pseudoindoxyl. Kratom and related compounds work at the μ-opioid receptors to varting degrees. The synthetic products are stronger and more likely to cause misadventure and dependence.

                CONTENT

                Content

                INTRODUCTION

                Kratom. What a funny little word. It's six letters and preponderance of consonants give it an explosive, almost exotic sound. When Pete, a 31-year-old construction worker who has been on workers compensation for six months for a back injury asks about it, the pharmacist, Cindy, is baffled. Educated to never respond with “I don’t know,” Cindy replies, “I don’t know but I will gather some information. Can you give me a couple of days to do some research?” Pete agrees and Cindy gathers information using open-ended questions to determine his goals. Pete says he heard that kratom relieves pain much like opioids do, and it’s a “natural product.” He says that his physician is weaning him from opioids, but he still has pain unrelieved by nonopioid pain killers. His bowling league teammate said “7” would be “better than that regular kratom stuff.” He sees both products at the gas station, and he would like to know if they have the same side effects as opioids do. He says, “I would really like to be done with the constipation.”

                 

                PAUSE AND PONDER: What things should Cindy think about as she assesses Pete’s situation?

                 

                People native to Southeast Asia (Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Papua New Guinea, and Thailand) have a deep-rooted history of using kratom, derived from the whole fresh or dried leaves of tropical Mitragyna speciosa trees, dating back centuries.1, 2 Once harvested, the leaves can be chewed or brewed into a tea for multiple purposes. Western medical literatures’ earliest mention of kratom dates to the 19th Century. Traditional uses of kratom in Southeast Asia include improving productivity and combatting physical fatigue in manual laborers, treating morphine dependence, and enhancing religious ceremonies.3

                 

                In recent years, kratom-containing products have garnered popularity within the recreational drug market. Approximately five million Americans (aged 12 years old or older) have used kratom.4 The predominant demographic of users has recently shifted from middle-aged males to younger people and females.5 Consumers can purchase these products in smoke shops, convenience stores, gas stations, and over the Internet without a prescription.4 In the United States (U.S.), kratom is available in several dosage forms (capsules, concentrated extracts, powder, raw leaves, and tablets) and doses (depends on the dosage form). Around the world, traditional kratom products have been used as a replacement for traditional opioids or other substances of abuse, or for treatment of anxiety or depression. However, no clinical trials substantiate these benefits.6,7,8

                 

                Cindy focuses on the allegation that kratom and similar products are “natural,” recalling that “natural” is not equivalent to “harmless.” Natural products are often contaminated with elemental impurities (also known as heavy metals).9 Kratom specifically can be tainted with heavy metals like arsenic, lead, manganese, and nickel. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) specifies the permissible daily exposure (maximum acceptable intake) for arsenic, lead, and nickel in dietary supplement products and the tolerable upper intake level of manganese would also be exceeded by some products. However, some kratom products have been found to exceed these regulatory thresholds; non-extract products (capsules, powders, and tablets) often have higher concentrations compared to extracts.5

                 

                A potential cause of lead and nickel contamination is the country of origin of the kratom trees (Indonesia and Thailand, for example, naturally have greater lead concentrations in their soil and water).10,11 Local water is used to wash the picked leaves which may leave an elemental impurity residue and the trees themselves can pick up the heavy metal from the soil. Machinery use (harvesting, grinding, storing, and shipping), pesticide and herbicide use, and volcanic rock leeching are the ultimate sources of the heavy metals.10,11 Regardless of the source, elemental impurities may be retained on harvested, dried leaves which can then be sold to consumers leading to excessive heavy metal exposure. Some products sold as kratom in the U.S. have been adulterated with synthetic compounds such as 7-hydroxymitragynine ((7-OH-MG), an alkaloid of kratom and a growing concern nationally) or even with fentanyl or hydrocodone.12

                 

                Readers should take a moment to review the various chemical names and pronunciations used in this continuing education (CE) activity in the SIDEBAR.

                 

                SIDEBAR: Chemical Components of Kratom

                • Alkaloids: natural organic compounds that provide varying physiological effects on animals
                • Corynantheidine*: a minor alkaloid of kratom with antinociceptive activity
                • Corynoxine/corynoxine B: a minor alkaloid of kratom and derivative of corynantheidine; full agonist of the μ-opioid receptor
                • Mitragynine*: a major (most abundant) alkaloid of kratom; provides pain-relieving and stimulating effects
                • Mitragynine pseudoindoxyl: a 7-OH-MG metabolite; a more potent μ-opioid receptor agonist compared to mitragynine
                • Paynantheine: a major, secondary alkaloid of kratom with high binding affinity to serotonin receptors (5-HT1A and 5-HT2B)
                • Speciofoline: a minor alkaloid of kratom with no measurable binding affinity at the µ-, δ- or ƙ-opioid receptors
                • Speciogynine: a minor alkaloid of kratom with high binding affinity to serotonin receptors (5-HT1A and 5-HT2B)
                • Specioliatine*: a minor, rare alkaloid of kratom; modulates the pain-relieving and stimulating effects of mitragynine
                • 7-hydroxymitragynine (7-OH-MG): an active metabolite of mitragynine; a potent partial μ-opioid receptor agonist exhibiting pain-relief, sedation, and opioid-induced addiction potential (as indicated in animal studies; see below)

                *partial agonist of the μ-opioid receptor

                 

                Kratom remains a Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) substance of concern but is not currently scheduled.6 Kratom products’ overall risk profile is much lower than some substances of abuse (traditional opioids, amphetamines, cocaine) and similar or slightly lower than cannabis and alcohol.7 However, when traditional kratom products are used to treat substance use disorders (SUDs), two observational studies (N = 160, N = 32, respectively) found fewer subsequent episodes of illicit substance abuse and fewer risky lifestyle behaviors such as injecting drugs and needle sharing.9,13

                 

                Another observational study (N = 163) found a lower likelihood of constipation, cravings, fatigue, insomnia, and sexual performance issues than those associated with traditional opioid use.14 One small clinical trial (N = 26) demonstrated that traditional kratom products can increase pain tolerance. Following a cold pressor task (a procedure where participants immerse their dominant hand into an ice bath and verbally report pain onset), kratom reduced pain sensitivity. The study also suggests that chronic use may cause hyperalgesia (an increased sensitivity to pain) when kratom alkaloid concentrations are low compared to drug-naïve states.6,15 Whole leaf kratom has modest stimulant effects, so the risk of respiratory depression is low but it does produce adverse events, especially in higher doses, and it has the potential to cause a kratom use disorder (kratom-specific substance use disorder, K-SUD).6,16  The main adverse events include nausea and vomiting, constipation, tachycardia, hypertension, agitation, confusion, elevated liver function tests, and seizures.

                 

                Notable changes have occurred in the kratom product marketplace. In January 2024, an exposition (trade show) in Las Vegas for buyers and sellers of legal recreational substances hosted just two companies selling products with high concentrations of a metabolite (7-OH-MG) as the most abundant alkaloid.17 By the time the next exposition was held in Chicago in June 2024, 37 companies in the marketplace with 7-OH-MG as a prominent ingredient in a product or products attended; it’s likely that there are many more that did not attend.17 According to the National Drug Early Warning System (surveillance system that detects early signals of potential drug epidemics), chatter about 7-OH-MG had increased steeply. It rose from roughly 10 posts weekly between September 2023 to November 2024 and spiked to about 20 posts for several weeks from November 2023 to March 2024. From March to June 2024, posts spiked considerably to 30 to 45 posts weekly for several weeks.18 This CE activity will attempt to tackle several key questions regarding this trend towards higher 7-OH-MG products including

                1. How does the alkaloid composition in traditional kratom products compare with high 7-OH-MG concentration products?
                2. What do preclinical studies (studies conducted in animal models) suggest about the pharmacologic effects of traditional kratom products compared to high 7-OH-MG concentration products?
                3. What insight can be gleaned from consumers about the comparative effects of taking traditional kratom products rather than high 7-OH-MG products?

                   

                  TRADITIONAL KRATOM VS. 7-HYDROXYMITRAGYNINE

                  As displayed in Figure 1, the most abundant alkaloid in traditional kratom products is mitragynine, with concentrations ranging from 54% to 66% of the total alkaloid content.1 Many other alkaloids comprise the remaining 34% to 46% of total alkaloids, but 7-OH-MG only constitutes less than 1% of the total.

                  Figure 1. Histogram of the Relative Percentage of Alkaloids in Traditional Kratom Products Versus 7-Hydroxymitragynine Products

                  READING THIS HISTOGRAM: Whole leaf kratom (either fresh or leaf) has 54% mitragynine, 16% specioliatine, 12% cornoxine/cornoxine B, 10% paynantheine, and <1% 7-hydroxymitragynine. 7-OH-MG products contain 93% 7-hydroxymitragynine, 7% mitragynine, and none of these other natural alkaloids.

                   

                  In its natural, fresh state, kratom leaves do not contain 7-OH-MG; however, 7-OH-MG is a degradation product found minutely in older leaves.1 In one laboratory evaluation of 53 commercial kratom products, mitragynine, and 7-OH-MG concentrations were related to the speciofoline concentration, a major alkaloid found in the kratom plant that has unspecified activity at the mu and kappa opioid receptors.19 “High speciofoline” varieties comprised 4.13 mg/G of kratom powder with mitragynine and 7-OH-MG content of 8.13 mg/G and 0.03 mg/G, respectively. “Low speciofoline” varieties had undetectable speciofoline content but mitragynine and 7-OH-MG content of 11.45 mg/G and 0.06 mg/G, respectively. While not found in kratom leaves, the active metabolite of 7-OH-MG is an alkaloid called mitragynine pseudoindoxyl.19

                   

                  Although several brands of kratom are available, a popular product is called 7-OHMZ. In this product’s certificate of analysis (CoA; see SIDEBAR), the manufacturer reports 14.9 mg of 7-OH-MG and 1.3 mg of mitragynine per tablet (92% 7-OH-MG).20 A different product, Hydroxie, is an ultra-pure 7-hydroxy kratom. Its CoA shows it contains 16.5 mg of 7-OH-MG and 1.3 mg of mitragynine (93% 7-OH-MG).21 A third product, Press’d, has an available CoA that indicates it contains 18.5 mg of 7-OH-MG and 1.5 mg of mitragynine (93% 7-OH-MG).22 The 7-OHMZ and Hydroxie companies state they extract the 7-OH-MG naturally for their products. However, high speciofoline dried kratom leaves contain only 0.03 mg/G of 7-OH-MG. To make a single 7-OH-MG dose with traditional kratom powder, 7-OHMZ and Hydroxie requires between 466 g to 550 g of dried kratom leaves and Press’d requires 616 g of dried leaves which is an entire tree’s harvest of leaves.19

                   

                  SIDEBAR: TECH TALK: Understanding Product Verification Absent FDA Approval23

                  As kratom and 7-OH-MG products become more available, consumers need to be aware that they are not FDA-approved. Without FDA approval, the FDA takes no responsibility for ensuring that the kratom or 7-OH-MG concentration on the label matches the product content. Monitoring these products is especially important.

                   

                  Plants can absorb heavy metals, pesticides, and other potentially harmful chemicals that may be in the soil or water easily, and analysts find these contaminants in the leaves, flowers, and stems. Therefore, consumers—and the pharmacists and technicians who advise them—need to investigate the kratom products available on the market if they make recommendations or find a product is widely used in their localities.

                   

                  Consumers can request products’ Certificate of Analysis (CoA), which provides information about testing for contaminants and active ingredient levels. If the retailer cannot provide it, consumers should avoid that product. States and retailers are starting to take the initiative to ensure consumers have needed information.

                   

                  When looking at the CoA, consumers can be more confident of the quality if the CoA states that the lab meets “ISO 17025” standards. Consumers can also look to see if the CoA states that the lab complied with the standards set by one of three organizations:

                  • the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists (AOAC),
                  • the American Herbal Pharmacopoeia (AHP), or
                  • the U.S. Pharmacopeia (USP).

                   

                  Consumers should beware of products that list the total concentration in the product (i.e., 250 mg in the bottle) and not the active ingredient concentration (i.e., 2.5 mg/mL). Of course, products should clearly define a “dose,” and list the amount of active ingredient in a dose and not in the entire product. These products may contain other related compounds besides mitragynine and 7-OH-MG. Consumers should also beware of “proprietary blends” where the alkaloids in the product are given with a total dosage but the amount of each alkaloid is not provided.

                   

                  PHARMACOLOGIC COMPARISON OF ALKALOID PHARMACOLOGY

                  Results of In Vitro Studies

                  Stimulating the μ-opioid receptor with traditional opioids (like morphine) has been associated with feelings of wellbeing, euphoria, pain relief/antinociception (reduced sensitivity to pain), and constipation. It can also lead to central nervous system depression that impairs the normal respiratory response to rising carbon dioxide levels in the blood. Mitragynine and 7-OH-MG are partial μ-opioid agonists while morphine is a full agonist.1 In an in vitro study, the μ-opioid receptor Ki receptor binding affinity (lower Ki means tighter binding) and EC50 for cAMP accumulation (lower cAMP accumulation means greater suppression of adenylate cyclase production) were determined for mitragynine and 7-OH-MG. The μ-opioid receptor Ki for mitragynine was 15-fold higher than 7-OH-MG (238 nM vs. 16 nM) and 159 times higher than morphine (238 nM vs. 1.5 nM). The μ-opioid receptor cAMP EC50 was 29-fold (398 nM vs. 13.6) higher for mitragynine versus 7-OH-MG and 83-fold (398 nM vs. 4.8 nM) higher than morphine.19 In other words, 7-OH-MG and morphine bind tighter to the μ-opioid receptor and suppress adenylate cyclase production at magnitudes far greater than mitragynine. For reasons that are poorly understood, mitragynine and 7-OH-MG are less likely to cause respiratory depression than traditional opioids in preclinical studies.6,19 Other kratom alkaloids (specioliatine, paynantheine, and speciogynine) bind weakly to μ-opioid receptors with Ki values ranging from 410 to 728 nM.19

                   

                  Understanding how these products work and their effects on various systems is emerging. The composition of kratom is highly variable; although mitragynine is the predominant alkaloid, around one-third of kratom is composed of other, minor alkaloids. Whether minor or major, kratom’s alkaloids have specific binding affinities and therapeutic outcomes. Physiologic effects of kratom therefore depend on all the alkaloids present. For example,

                  • Stimulating alpha-1 and alpha-2 adrenoceptors with mitragynine provides modest antinociception (pain reduction). These effects can be attenuated by alpha-1 and alpha-2 antagonists (prazosin—an antihypertensive—and yohimbine—a supplement allegedly used for benign prostatic hyperplasia and sexual function, respectively).19
                  • Stimulating alpha-2 adrenoceptors, like with clonidine, can prevent sympathetic outflow (signaling leading to activation of the sympathetic nervous system) in people with withdrawal symptoms from traditional opioids. Research indicates this effect may attenuate opioid withdrawal symptoms that patents experience.
                  • Mitragynine has moderate nonselective agonist effects across alpha-1 and alpha-2 adrenoceptors with Ki values ranging from 1.3 to 9.3 mcM.
                  • Speciogynine provides strong alpha-2 agonist effects for many alpha-2 adrenoceptors (Ki for alpha-2A, alpha-2B, and alpha-2C from 0.4 to 2.6 mcM) but has no effect on alpha-1 adrenoceptors.
                  • Corynantheidine is a potent agonist for alpha-1D adrenoceptors with a Ki value of 0.042 mcM. Stimulation of serotonin receptors can enhance mood and alertness.
                  • Mitragynine has modest agonist effects at serotonin receptors with Ki values at 5-HT-1A, -2A, and -2B ranging from 1.3 to 5.9 mcM.
                  • Paynantheine and speciogynine are potent agonists at serotonin receptors with Ki values for 5-HT-1A and -2B ranging from 0.02 to 0.04 mcM and 5-HT-2B Ki values ranging from 0.8 to 1.3 mcM.19

                   

                  Traditional kratom products’ pharmacology is complex. Consider this: the human enzyme CYP3A4 converts a portion of mitragynine to 7-OH-MG in the brush border of the gastrointestinal tract and the liver. Next, CYP3A4 circulating in the plasma converts a portion of this active metabolite to mitragynine pseudoindoxyl, a molecule with the ability to interact with central opioid receptors.24 Mitragynine pseudoindoxyl is at least as potent an opioid agonist as 7-OH-MG and lacks alpha adrenoceptor or serotonin receptor effects.25

                   

                  Human studies are needed to explore kratom's utility in analgesia, euphoria, and addiction more thoroughly. As of January 10, 2025, only nine ongoing studies were listed in clinicaltrials.gov. Most were small, although a few larger studies are underway.26,27 In one now complete study, human plasma converted 7-OH-MG into mitragynine pseudoindoxyl much more effectively than plasma from other species.25 The percentages of mitragynine pseudoindoxyl formed at the end of 120 minutes of incubation with 7-OH-MG in dog, monkey, mouse, and rat plasma were below 4.3% but 53.8% in human plasma. This suggests that mitragynine pseudoindoxyl’s contribution to the overall opioid receptor’s impact could differ between species. The impact is that pharmacologic effects might also differ between animals and humans with more dangerous effects in people.25 Taken together, the receptor pharmacology of traditional kratom products is a constellation of μ-opioid, alpha-1 and alpha-2 adrenergic, and serotonin receptor effects from multiple alkaloids while 7-OH-MG products focus almost exclusively on μ-opioid receptor effects, which is similar to traditional opioids.1,6,19,24,25

                   

                  PAUSE AND PONDER: What takeaways can you list for the heavy science presented in the last few paragraphs?

                   

                  As Cindy assembles all of the information, she is somewhat confused. She calls a professor at her alma mater and asks if he can discuss these findings with her. After an hour of discussion, she says, “Let me summarize what I have learned so I can explain this to my patient:

                  • Kratom alkaloids in the highest abundance in whole leaf products primarily interact with alpha-1 and alpha-2 adrenergic and serotonin receptors with indirect and weak opioid effects
                  • Metabolism of mitragynine via CYP3A4 results in metabolites (7-OH-MG and then mitragynine pseudoindoxyl) that more potently exhibit opioid agonist properties
                  • 7-OH-MG binds the μ-opioid receptor far greater than mitragynine and 7-OH-MG products have far more 7-OH-MG than whole leaf products could ever provide
                  • Differences in metabolite amounts and μ-opioid receptor quantities and locations may be species-specific but the effects seen with 7-OH-MG in animals would likely be greater in humans.”

                  Cindy’s professor says that she got it! He suggests that now that she knows the basic pharmacology, she should move on to some animal studies.

                   

                  Results of Animal Studies

                  A step up from in vitro study is the use of animal models. Researchers select animal models carefully based on the purpose of their study. In the case of kratom and 7-OH-MG products, researchers’ intent is to determine how the products compare to opioids in terms of pain relief, euphoria, and addiction potential. For that purpose, the ideal models are small rodents (rats and mice). Many rodent models of pain and addiction exist. Many of the experimental animals can and will self-medicate in response to pain or craving.

                   

                  A mouse model (tail-flick test) study sought to establish the equipotent antinociception doses of mitragynine and 7-OH-MG.1 Overall, mitragynine 140 mg/kg subcutaneously provided a similar tail-flick response to 0.7 mg/kg of 7-OH-MG. (See how much more potent 7-OH-MG is compared to mitragynine?) The brain concentrations of 7-OH-MG were almost identical in the mitragynine group (with 7-OH-MG created via metabolism) and the group given 7-OH-MG, suggesting that 7-OH-MG is a driver of mitragynine’s opioid mediated pain-relieving effects.1 In another mouse study, 7-OH-MG produced a potent antinociceptive effect, similar to morphine and mainly through activation of μ-opioid receptors.28 Tolerance to 7-OH-MG’s antinociceptive effect developed, similar to the tolerance that develops with morphine. Importantly, cross-tolerance to morphine was evident in mice rendered tolerant to 7-OH-MG or morphine when the drugs were switched. Finally, naloxone-induced withdrawal signs occurred equally in mice chronically treated with 7-OH-MG or morphine.28

                   

                  Overall, 7-OH-MG appears to have greater abuse potential than mitragynine.29 In a rat model, investigators took morphine-addicted rats and allowed them to self-administer 7-OH-MG or mitragynine in a substitution phase. Rats preferred 7-OH-MG over mitragynine and did so in a manner that was dose-dependent and similar to their previous morphine use. After the substitution phase, the researchers allowed morphine self-administration again. Rats using 7-OH-MG ingested higher morphine doses than they had previously while those who used mitragynine ingested lower morphine doses. Nalxonaxine, an experimental μ-opioid receptor antagonist, reduced 7-OH-MG and morphine self-administration doses.29

                   

                  Less is known about mitragynine pseudoindoxyl’s antinociceptive and withdrawal effects.30 In one model, researchers tested mice to see how long they could retain their tails in a hot water bath at baseline. Then they administered repeated saline or escalating doses of morphine, kratom alkaloid extract, mitragynine, or mitragynine pseudoindoxyl for four days. Immediately before day 5 dosing, the mice previously treated with morphine (~11 + 2 to 2 + 1 s), kratom extract (~10 + 1 to 4 + 1 s) or mitragynine (10 + 1 to 4 + 1 s) demonstrated significantly more drug-induced hyperalgesia, but the normal saline group did not (~10 + 1 to 8 + 1 s). The mitragynine pseudoindoxyl group had reductions from baseline (~11 + 2 to ~6 + 1 s) but this did not achieve statistical significance. Mice were then administered naloxone on day 5 after their assigned drug was administered. When exposed to naloxone, all active groups had less severe withdrawal symptoms than the morphine group for some measures, although for some measures the withdrawal symptoms were greater with the kratom extract, mitragynine, and mitragynine pseudoindoxyl groups than the normal saline group.30

                   

                  These studies suggest that 7-OH-MG has more potent antinociceptive effects, opioid users would be more likely to seek it, and would promote the subsequent use of higher doses of traditional opioids (called a reinforcing effect) than mitragynine.28,29,30

                   

                  In a recent editorial, prominent kratom basic scientists expressed grave concern about 7-OH-MG products.31 They believe that manufacturers are taking mitragynine extract and chemically converting it into 7-OH-MG producing unknown alkaloids in the process. Creating alkaloids that do not exist in nature or as a known metabolite in the human body poses unknown risks to patients. They also believe that the pharmacology of 7-OH-MG is inherently riskier than that of mitragynine.31

                   

                  PAUSE AND PONDER: What is the pharmacist’s role in preventing kratom misuse? How would you advise your patients to approach using this product safely?

                   

                  Kratom this. Kratom that. Cindy is learning all about kratom extracts! After reviewing the animal studies, she calls her professor back. Concerned with the opioid-like properties of kratom’s alkaloids and metabolites, Cindy is unclear if kratom would be a good alternative for Pete’s pain. Cindy’s professor, understanding her concern, sends her to search the World Wide Web for personal, raw experiences from users.

                   

                  ANECDOTAL EFFECTS OF 7-HYDROXYMITRAGYNINE PRODUCTS

                  Anecdotal experiences with kratom include discussions of pain relief, energizing or relaxing effects, or its use to prevent opioid withdrawal in between opioid doses, or as a chronic replacement for opioids.6,8,9,13,14 The euphoric effects caused by traditional opioids reportedly do not occur for many consumers who take traditional kratom products; this makes traditional kratom products an unsuitable substitute for people who use them recreationally.8 There is said to be a ceiling effect for the mood elevation with traditional kratom products and that nausea experienced when escalating doses tempers the desire to binge dose.6,32

                   

                  The reported consumer experiences with 7-OH-MG products to date are characteristically different than experiences users describe with traditional kratom products.32 Table 1 provides some direct quotes from Reddit chat rooms concerning 7-OH-MG. They are categorized into initial experiences, addiction and withdrawal, and the use of kratom to manage 7-OH-MG withdrawal.32 To summarize these comments, users described 7-OH-MG products’ euphoric effects as more intense. Although the users didn’t report if the pain was due to injury or to hyperalgesia. They reported pain relief but indicated that effects were short lived. 7-OH-MG products can lead to rapid dose increases, with tolerance and withdrawal developing more quickly than with traditional kratom products. A 7-OH-MG addiction can result in financial distress as consumers lose the ability to control their use. A three-tablet pack of Press’d 7-OH-MG 18 mg costs $17 and the suggested dose is ½ tablet. If patients take ½ tablet twice a day, that is $5.70 per day or $2,081 per year. Extrapolating to recreational use and tolerance, patients who take 12 tablets a day expend $68 a day or $24,820 a year. Confusing 7-OH-MG products with traditional kratom products can lead to relapse for consumers using kratom as a chronic opioid substitute.

                   

                  Table 1. Anecdotal customer experiences with 7-hydroxymitragynine products.32

                   

                  Early Experiences ·        “…a lot of people are strictly using 7oh for the biggest burst of high they can get. People will tiptoe around it saying they want pain relief but if the euphoria burst isn't there, they don't want it.”

                  ·        “Some kratom is like a beer, with 7oh is like a shot.”

                  ·        “…7oh doesn't have that ceiling effect of nausea the same way kratom does…Proceed with caution though 7oh is a different animal.”

                  ·        “the cleanest and more euphoric high that I’ve gotten from… any kratom shots or powders.”

                  ·        “kratom has a pretty low ceiling for effects but with 7 hydroxy you can get rlly [sic] up there without getting nauseous or wobbly.”

                  ·        “7oh makes me more anxious and can even cause some very severe anxiety symptoms and racing thoughts.” “I personally would actively avoid 7oh if I didn’t have my anxiety under control.”

                  ·        “I get some rebound anxiety when the 7OH dose wears off, usually like 1.5-2 hours after taking it. I’d bet the higher the dose the worse that becomes.”

                  ·        “Be really careful with 7oh.”

                  ·        “Put it under my tongue and at first I felt underwhelmed. But about 25 minutes in I felt this sudden, powerful buzzing numbness flush my body. This lasted for about an hour and then I kept drifting to and from sleep+dreams all cozey on the couch. I was super itchy and not exactly comfortable for the first while but the later hours made up for that. Will do again, sparingly.”

                  ·        “It’s a different feeling to start with, itchier and more intense. Like your whole body’s blushing. And although ive got kratom nods before, they were not as couch-lock-ey or as long as this was.”

                  Addiction and Withdrawal ·        “I am not sure how to proceed. Ugh, it's like I am right back on the oxy merry go round after working so hard to get off, and being so happy to be free (with the exception of plain leaf kratom). I am on about 3 tablets a day now. How do we get off? Use massive doses of plain leaf?”

                  ·        "I take it everyday 3x a day and I wakeup in withdrawal. It really sucks I feel like a fool getting mixed up in this world. Last time I tried to wean down I got so depressed it was scary. Been using for 6 months. It's like getting hooked on oxy once you enter the everyday use and it's been a few months. It creeps up slowly but it's HARD to get off."

                  ·        “To give you perspective, I start feeling withdrawals after 4 hours and it is hard for me to go any longer than that . I wish I could make it a full 24 hours. Albeit I do take .5 or 1 tab at a time, but I do it at least 4 times a day or I’m miserable.”

                  ·        “…will be tianeptine for me over again.” [Referring to the tricyclic drug tianeptine which has potent opioid like effects and was being sold illegally as a dietary supplement in 2024 throughout the country]

                  ·        “Be careful. Be super careful, I had to go to detox to get off it. The withdrawals are insane.”

                  ·        “Much worse than kratom. Not as bad as fent or heroin…”

                  ·        “Anyone else get restless legs/ restless when stopping/ cutting back a lot?”

                  ·        “Yeah, unfortunately 7oh is physically addictive. I quit the beginning of July and it sucked. It’s too expensive to be so dependent on.”

                  ·        “...introduced to this stuff about 4 weeks ago and went nuts. Now it's time to say good bye. I can not throw my life away for this stuff.”

                  ·        “I can already tell stopping is going to be ugly. Anyone got any hints on how to dry out from this stuff.”

                  ·        “I was taking 8 a day for several months. Have just over 55 hours off now. Tapered down to a half in the morning and a half at night. Had to just be okay with feeling pretty shitty all of the time, felt like crying a lot randomly.”

                  ·        “I take 3 of these at a time now and do that 3 or 4 times a day. Draining my accts, trying to come off of it because the WDs suck.”

                  ·        “If I don’t take plain leaf with it I’ll wake up 2x in the night withdrawing. Stuff has a shorter half life than u would think. Atleast for me. It’s physically addicting.”

                  ·        “I was taking around 8-10 tabs a day. Did this for around 1-2 months. Expensive habit. Tried to just stop several times, only to wake up the next day in severe withdrawals. Would drive myself to the smoke shop sick as shit because I have a job and need to be able to function.” “Motivation is completely drained. I’m very tired and dopamine/serotonin feel completely nonexistent almost. Very hard to get anything done but hopefully things start to improve after a week or two.” “Tightness in my chest. Panic and anxiety. Existential dread. Flu-like feeling across my whole body. Cold and hot flashes. Never warm, always cold, but sweating a lot. Joints hurt. Back hurts. Head hurts. Eyes hurt. No motivation, no drive.”

                  Kratom to Manage 7-Hydroxymitragynine Withdrawal ·        “If you're like a lot of people, tapering doesn't really work. I'm not saying it can't be done, I'm just saying it can't for some people. Try regular kratom, which eliminates most the withdrawals pretty well.”

                  ·        “Kratom helps with some of the worst of the withdrawals.”

                  ·        “Now I am just taking 5 capsules in the morning of normal kratom red vein and 5 at night and I still feel kind of sick but I feel immense relief that I’m through the worst of it and no longer driving to the smoke shop sick as shit every couple days and dropping $300-$500.”

                  ·        “just use regular kratom powder to handle the wds.”

                  ·        “The anxiety for me is bad before hand but when I jump to leaf its always minimally bad. I feel like a little tired, and anxious because I miss my 7oh babies...”

                   

                   

                  Experiencing the euphoric high with 7-OH-MG products (that whole leaf kratom or mitragynine extract products lack) can undo addiction control. Finally, while some consumers try to stop using 7-OH-MG cold turkey, many consumers describe needing to move from 7-OH-MG to whole leaf kratom products or mitragynine extracts to deal with withdrawal symptoms and cravings. Importantly, the posts do not describe people moving from 7-OH-MG to traditional opioids or other illicit opioid-like products such as tianeptine (atypical tricyclic antidepressant with opioid receptor agonist properties; also called “gas station heroin”)(see SIDEBAR). These products were virtually unheard of only a few months ago. It is still too early to know the full measure of adverse events that they could cause.32

                   

                  SIDEBAR: TIANEPTINE33,34

                  Globally, several health regulatory agencies have approved tianeptine for the treatment of major depressive disorder since its discovery in the 1980s, but the FDA has not. This molecule, originally called an atypical tricyclic antidepressant, appears to have potential benefits for patients experiencing anxiety and irritable bowel disease, but it does not work like other tricyclics. Later research found it targets the opioid mu receptor. Despite its status as an unapproved drug in the U.S., individuals are able to procure it online and at some retail locations (e.g., bodegas, corner stores, gas stations, mini marts, smoke shops). The origins of these substances is sketchy; it’s possible that they are commercially produced by drug manufacturers but just as likely synthesized in underground laboratories. Tianeptine, labeled as "Zaza" and "Tianna Red," has joined the various gas station drugs and has earned the name “gas station heroin.” It is often packaged in shot-sized bottles, and frequently contains synthetic cannabinoids. Recreational users seek tianeptine for its ability to produce a euphoric, opioid-like high. Sadly, chronic use can lead to dependence, tolerance, addiction, and overdose. Some users have attempted suicide. Calls to poison control centers have skyrocketed since 2014.

                   

                  WHERE SHOULD WE GO FROM HERE?

                  Why are these products available for sale legally in the U.S.? As noted, several members of Congress asked the DEA not to list kratom products in Schedule I. Traditional whole leaf kratom products contain a natural ingredient with a blend of alkaloids from dried leaves that have effects on opioid receptors (without reinforcing effects), alpha adrenoceptors, and serotonin receptors.8 Traditional kratom products have been used around the globe for medical purposes for decades and evidence about its relative safety compared to other substances of abuse is increasing.6-9,13,14

                   

                  Congress's concerns included the fact that a bipartisan majority felt that that ban would be made with no opportunity for public comment from researchers, consumers, and other stakeholders. They indicated that such a precipitous decision could be deleterious to consumer access and choice of an internationally recognized herbal supplement; it could also stop progress on studies targeting the treatment of individuals suffering from opioid and other addictions.35

                   

                  As Cindy did more research, she found that kratom and related products are illegal in some states even though the federal government has not restricted its use. Restrictions may simply impose age limits, employ a more comprehensive kratom consumer protection restrictions, or may ban these products entirely. The Global Kratom Coalition maintains a map (https://globalkratomcoalition.org/regulation-map)36 with updated information of the restrictions in the U.S. (see reference), but it is always wise to determine the laws in your state from original sources. As of January 1, 2025, many states, including California, Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania have no statewide restrictions. Alabama, Arkansas, Indiana, Rhode Island, Vermont, and Wisconsin have outlawed kratom products. Many other states, including Florida, Georgia, and Texas have enacted kratom consumer protection regulations. Healthcare providers need to know if their state has passed bans or regulations, and what the regulations specify. A few localities in states where kratom is legal have established their own restrictions. Some examples include San Diego, California (sale or possession are illegal), Denver, Colorado (no sale for human consumption), Jerseyville, Illinois (banned entirely), Sarasota County, Florida (banned entirely), and Union County, Mississippi (banned entirely).37

                   

                  The Kratom Consumer Advisory Board is comprised of a scientist and pharmacist (C. Michael White, PharmD) and consumers who have been helped or harmed by kratom products.38 They develop position statements and advise researchers, legislators, and advocacy groups about best practices regarding kratom use. The position statements can be accessed in the references and describe potential regulatory language and rationale behind preventing children from accessing kratom, the risks of 7-OH-MG products, proper labeling, and the need to register products that are being sold to consumers in the state to enforce safety regulations and good manufacturing practices.38

                   

                  This regulatory environment surrounding kratom should not extend to products with doses of 7-OH-MG that could never exist in nature. Emboldened by the DEA and the FDA’s inaction to date, newer products such as the “Press’d: The Hulk Blend” are combining 15 mg of 7-OH-MG with 15 mg of mitragynine pseudoindoxyl.39 There is one product that contains only mitragynine pseudoindoxyl.40 It is indefensible that these products could possibly be considered natural since mitragynine pseudoindoxyl does not exist in kratom leaves at all. Now, other semi-synthetic alkaloids of mitragynine are being created and placed in products such at 8- and 11-hydroxymitragynine and “Red-OH” with no published animal or human data.41 The HOPES research group at the University of Connecticut is actively cataloging a comprehensive list of 7-OH-MG, mitragynine pseudoindoxyl, 8-hydroxymitragynine, and “Red-OH” products on the market so states that register products sold in their state can assure that these drugs are excluded from sale. If the tianeptine debacle has taught us anything, it is that we need to identify products being sold as natural products and determine if they are truly reflective of nature.42

                   

                  Finally, new clouds are on the horizon with mitragynine and 7-OH-MG extracts that are being placed into candy formulations (popping crystals, noobs, chocolate bars, gummies, taffy, and ice cream cones), flavorings like strawberry, raspberry, mango, and grape, and sold with cute cartoon mascots.43 The more kratom products resemble sweet treats, the greater the risk of children consuming them. The HOPES research group is also cataloging a comprehensive list of these products that could entice children so states that register products sold in their state can restrict their sales.43

                   

                  PAUSE AND PONDER: Does your practice state or municipality have regulations towards 7-OH-MG? Mitragynine? Kratom? Should it?

                   

                  In this CE activity, we have shown that 7-OH-MG and mitragynine pseudoindoxyl relies entirely on opioid receptor effects, rather than impacting a balanced series of receptors like traditional kratom products do.1,8,19,28,29 Preclinical studies suggest that 7-OH-MG has reinforcing effects that mitragynine (the most abundant alkaloid in traditional kratom products) does not have; this is a warning sign for its addiction potential.28,29 Customer experiences with 7-OH-MG products suggest euphoric effects that mimic traditional opioids, faster tolerance and shorter duration of action, and faster onset with more severe withdrawal compared to traditional kratom.32 Until more is known about 7-OH-MG’s effects, shouldn’t customers be protected from accessing products that can potentially result in a lifetime of addiction? If nothing else, can we at least ensure that 7-OH-MG products are not classified as kratom products? If a consumer substitutes kratom for traditional opioids and accidentally experiences the euphoric effects from 7-OH-MG, it might be analogous to giving alcoholics a drink and restarting their cravings. If a wave of bad press about 7-OH-MG products falls under the umbrella of “kratom products,” both products could become Schedule I; a risk to consumers who rely on kratom to manage their opioid use disorder (OUD).

                   

                  California is working on legislation that would protect their citizens from 7-OH-MG products.43 In its legislation, kratom products would have a dose of 7-OH-MG that is a small fraction of total alkaloids in the product. This proposed California legislation can be a national model or can be emulated state by state.44

                   

                  What are health professionals’ responsibilities regarding 7-OH-MG products? The first is to be aware of changes in the kratom marketplace. Providers who have patients using traditional kratom products or who inquire about its use need to tell them that 7-OH-MG products—which they may call “7” or “7-OH”—are not kratom and could reinforce opioid addiction rather than provide relief. They should also educate patient’s that the U.S. FDA has approved therapies for OUD where the positive balance of benefits to risks are well known, augmenting that counseling providers can tell patients how to access services.45 If people are addicted to 7-OH-MG products, they need treatment to overcome their K-SUD, just like they would for other opioid receptor agonists. Finally, health professionals should alert regulators and our legislators about emerging threats to our patients’ health and well-being so they can take action.

                   

                  Cindy finished her research and scheduled an appointment to meet with Pete. She has reviewed all of the science, reconnected with her professor to clarify a few things, and also examined her state and local laws. She looked for articles, podcasts, and radio transcripts to find facts about local, state, and national trends. When Pete arrives, she is prepared to discuss the risks associated with 7-OH-MG. She tells him that “7” is not a natural product, explains why that is the case, and that it could be downright dangerous. Next, she discusses cost (which can be steep) and the fact that it isn’t covered by insurance. She expresses concern that we know little about its safety and gas station products are often labeled poorly or misleadingly. Finally, she tells Pete that it will not “fix” his problem with constipation. Kratom may be a potential option for some patients, but other FDA-approved options are available to support Pete that have proven clinical trial effects and would be better initial options to explore.

                   

                  Cindy realizes that this is an opportunity to help Pete. She explains that he is having breakthrough pain, and it may be time for the multidisciplinary team to become more involved. Pete admits he has not been going to physical therapy as scheduled, and he blushes when she asks if he’s been taking a stimulant laxative (he hasn’t). Cindy takes some time to contact the primary prescriber, and they work with the physical therapist to develop a better treatment plan for Pete. That new plan does not include 7-OH-MG.

                   

                  CONCLUSIONS

                  Products with 7-OH-MG and/or mitragynine pseudoindoxyl act solely through opioid receptors. Preclinical studies and human anecdotal experiences show 7-OH-MG provides euphoric effects that traditional kratom products (whole leaf or mitragynine extracts) do not. Given the known risks of OUD, 7-OH-MG and/or mitragynine pseudoindoxyl products should not be thought of, or listed as kratom and regulators should not transfer the hands-off attitude towards kratom to 7-OH-MG. It is inappropriate to have opioid receptor stimulators like 7-OH-MG or mitragynine pseudoindoxyl sold in gas stations, smoke shops, and over the internet without a prescription, limitations in dosage, and medical oversight.

                   

                   

                   

                  Pharmacist & Pharmacy Technician Post Test (for viewing only)

                  Kratom and Knock-offs: Should You Leaf Them Alone?
                  Post-Test Questions
                  LEARNING OBJECTIVES
                  After completing this continuing education activity, pharmacists and pharmacy technicians will be able to
                  • Describe natural kratom products and related chemicals
                  • Differentiate the effects of naturally derived kratom products and those associated with 7-OH-MG or mitragynine pseudoindoxyl
                  • List points of significance important to educating others about products related to kratom
                  1. Which of the following is the most abundant alkaloid of whole leaf kratom that provides pain-relieving and stimulating effects?
                  A. Corynoxine/corynoxine B
                  B. Mitragynine
                  C. 7-hydroxymitragynine (7-OH-MG)

                  2. Which of the following is not found in fresh kratom leaves but in miniscule levels in dried kratom leaves?
                  A. 7-OH-MG
                  B. mitragynine pseudoindoxyl
                  C. tianeptine

                  3. How do 7-OH-MG products differ from traditional whole leaf kratom products?
                  A. Whole leaf kratom products contain a natural ingredient with a blend of alkaloids from dried leaves that have a range of effects.
                  B. 7-OH-MG products contain a natural ingredient with a blend of alkaloids from dried leaves that have a range of effects.
                  C. Both products contain a natural ingredient with a blend of alkaloids added by their manufacturers that have a range of effects.

                  4. Researchers have found a number of receptors at which traditional kratom products work. Which list is CORRECT?
                  A. opioid receptors, beta adrenoceptors, and serotonin receptors
                  B. opioid receptors, alpha adrenoceptors, and norepinephrine receptors
                  C. opioid receptors, alpha adrenoceptors, and serotonin receptors

                  5. Two observational studies examined the use of traditional kratom products to treat substance use disorders. What have they found?
                  A. Kratom provided no benefits whatsoever for SUD.
                  B. Participants were more likely to return to injecting drugs.
                  C. Participants were less likely to use illicit substances.

                  6. Why might traditional kratom products be less likely to cause addiction and elevated recreational use as compared to 7-OH-MG?
                  A. Traditional kratom seems to have a ceiling effect for mood elevation.
                  B. Escalating doses causes itching that tempers the desire to binge dose.
                  C. There is no difference in addiction risk between these products.

                  7. A patient reports that he is being weaned off opioids and will be using “7” to handle his pain going forward. Which of the following is TRUE?
                  A. “7” works as well as FDA-approved opioids and it costs significantly less.
                  B. “7” products could reinforce opioid addiction rather than provide relief.
                  C. “7” is an excellent alternative to FDA-approved treatments for K-SUD.

                  8. A patient comes to the pharmacy with a bottle of kratom he bought from a head shop. He says he has listened to a couple of newscasts about kratom and 7-OH-MG products, and he is concerned about heavy metal contamination. Where would you suggest he look for more information?
                  A. A CoA from an independent lab that complies with recognized quality criteria
                  B. The Food and Drug Administration-approved product label or insert
                  C. An Occupational Safety and Health Administration safety data sheet

                  9. A patient who has been experiencing pain has been on opioids for more than two years. He is considering using 7-OH-MG. When you point out some of its disadvantages, he says that if that information was factual, Congress would have put 7-OH-MG into schedule 1; he has heard that it did not when it reviewed this product. What is the BEST way to address his comment?
                  A. Congress did not put 7-OH-MG into schedule 1 because doing so could stop studies targeting the treatment of individuals suffering from opioid and other addictions.
                  B. Members of one political party blocked the scheduling saying it would undermine access to an internationally recognized herbal supplement and limit self-treatment.
                  C. Congress has not addressed 7-OH-MG; a bipartisan group did ask that kratom NOT be placed in schedule 1 to allow access to this herb and support ongoing studies.

                  10. After discussing the use of “gas station products” to treat ongoing lingering pain with a patient, the patient decides to continue with FDA-approved products. GOOD JOB! What is the BEST next step to help this patient?
                  A. Make sure that the patient has not changed her mind about gas station products every single time she comes to the pharmacy to refill an opioid prescription.
                  B. Make a note in your state’s prescription drug monitoring program that this patient has been asking for illegal opioids and is at high risk for recreational drug use.
                  C. Determine if the patient’s treatment plan needs adjusting and work with the treatment team to ensure everyone is reinforcing consistent messages.

                  References

                  Full List of References

                  REFERENCES

                  1. Kruegel AC, Uprety R, Grinnell SG, Langreck C, et al.. 7-Hydroxymitragynine Is an Active Metabolite of Mitragynine and a Key Mediator of Its Analgesic Effects. ACS Cent Sci. 2019;5(6):992-1001. doi: 10.1021/acscentsci.9b00141.
                  2. KRATOM (Mitragyna speciosa korth). Drug Enforcement Administration, Diversion Control Division, Drug & Chemical Evaluation Section. April 2024. Accessed January 5, 2025. https://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/drug_chem_info/kratom.pdf
                  3. Following “the Roots” of Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa): The Evolution of an Enhancer from a Traditional Use to Increase Work and Productivity in Southeast Asia to a Recreational Psychoactive Drug in Western Countries
                  4. SAMHSA, Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality, National Survey on Drug Use and Health, 2021 and 2022. Accessed January 5, 2025. https://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/reports/rpt42728/NSDUHDetailedTabs2022/NSDUHDetailedTabs2022/NSDUHDetTabsSect8pe2022.htm.
                  5. Snow Caroti K, Joseph A, Sapowadia A, Michael White C. Elemental impurities (heavy metals) in kratom products: an assessment of published individual product analyses. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2024;62(10):651-660. doi:10.1080/15563650.2024.2395552
                  6. McCurdy CR, Sharma A, Smith KE, et al. An update on the clinical pharmacology of kratom: uses, abuse potential, and future considerations. Exp Rev Clin Pharmacol. 2024;17:131-142. doi: 10.1080/17512433.2024.2305798
                  7. Global Kratom Coalition. A Comparative Safety and Risk Analysis. Accessed January 10, 2025. https://static1.squarespace.com/static/6508b3f79033221c2aa1ea17/t/669585eefa4146188d8853a4/1721075184913/Comparative+Safety+of+Kratom+Compared+to+Other+Commonly+Used+Substances+%281%29.pdf
                  8. White CM. Pharmacologic and clinical assessment of kratom: An update. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2019;76:1915-1925. doi: 10.1093/ajhp/zxz221.
                  9. Singh D, Narayanan S, Abdullah MFIL, et al. Effects of kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) in reducing risk-behaviors among a small sample of HIV positive opiate users in Malaysia. J Ethn Subst Abuse. 2022;21:1285–1295. doi: 10.1080/15332640.2020. 1845899
                  10. Prozialeck W, Fowler A, Edwards J. Public health implications and possible sources of lead (Pb) as a contaminant of poorly regulated kratom products in the United States. Toxics. 2022;10(7):398. doi: 10.3390/toxics10070398.
                  11. Braley C, Hondrogiannis EM. Differentiation of commercially available Kratom by purported country of origin using inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry. J Forensic Sci. 2020;65(2):428–437. doi: 10.1111/1556-4029.14201.
                  12. Grundmann O, Veltri CA, Salari M. Kratom fact sheet for healthcare professionals. March 2019. Accessed January 5, 2025. https://nd.az.gov/sites/default/files/news/Kratom.pdf
                  13. Saref A, Suraya S, Singh D, et al. Self-report data on regular consumption of illicit drugs and HIV risk behaviors after kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) initiation among illicit drug users in Malaysia. J Psychoactive Drugs. 2020;52:138–144. doi: 10.1080/02791072.2019.168655350.
                  14. Saref A, Suraya S, Singh D, et al. Self-reported prevalence and severity of opioid and kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) side effects. J Ethnopharmacol. 2019;238:111876. doi: 10.1016/j.jep. 2019.11187649.
                  15. Vicknasingam B, Chooi WT, Rahim AA, et al. Kratom and pain tolerance: a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind study. Yale J Biol Med. 2020;93:229-238.
                  16. Fleming JH, Babyak CM, Alves EA. Analysis of heavy metals content in commercially available kratom products in Richmond, VA. Forensic Chem. 2023;33:100474.
                  17. Long J. Kratom groups, researchers sound alarm over 7-hydroxymitragynine products. Natural Products Insider. June 12, 2024. Accessed January 5, 2025. https://www.naturalproductsinsider.com/herbs-botanicals/kratom-groups-researchers-sound-alarm-over-7-hydroxymitragine-products
                  18. NDEWS. Weekly Monitoring Post. Issue 187. June 21, 2024. https://ndews.org/newsletter/weekly-briefing-issue-187/
                  19. Todd DA, Kellogg JJ, Wallace ED, et al. Chemical composition and biological effects of kratom (Mitragyna speciosa): In vitro studies with implications for efficacy and drug interactions. Sci Rep. 2020:10:19158. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-76119-w
                  20. 7-OHMZ Website. Certificate of Analysis. Accessed January 5, 2025. https://7ohmz.com/labs/
                  21. Hydroxy Website. Certificate of Analysis. Accessed January 5, 2025. https://hydroxie.com/pages/lab-results
                  22. Press’D Website. Certificate of Analysis. Accessed January 5, 2025. https://itspressd.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/CA240409-028-133-Alternative-Ventures-LLC-Pressd-1G-7-hydroxymitragynine-Tablets.pdf
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                  24. Kamble SH, Obeng S, Leon F, et al. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic consequences of cytochrome P450 3A inhibition on mitragynine metabolism in rats. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2023;385:180-192. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1124/jpet.122.001525
                  25. Kamble SH, León F, King TI, et al. Metabolism of a kratom alkaloid metabolite in human plasma increases its opioid potency and efficacy. ACS Pharmacol Transl Sci. 2020;3:1063-1068. doi: 10.1021/acsptsci.0c00075.
                  26. Kratom.Clinicaltrials.gov. Accessed January 10, 2025.https://clinicaltrials.gov/search?term=kratom&limit=25&page=1
                  27. 7-hydroxymitragynine.Clinicaltrials.gov. Accessed January 10, 2025.https://clinicaltrials.gov/search?term=7-hydroxymitragynine
                  28. Matsumoto K, Horie S, Takayama H, et al. Antinociception, tolerance and withdrawal symptoms induced by 7-hydroxymitragynine, an alkaloid from the Thai medicinal herb Mitragyna speciosa. Life Sciences. 2005;78:2-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2004.10.086.
                  29. Hemby SE, McIntosh S, Leon F, Cutler SJ, McCurdy CR. Abuse liability and therapeutic potential of the Mitragyna speciosa (kratom) alkaloids mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine. Addict Biol. 2019;24:874-885. doi: 10.1111/adb.12639.
                  30. Wilson LL, Chakraborty S, Eans SO, et al. Kratom alkaloids, natural and semi-synthetic, show less physical dependence and ameliorate opioid withdrawal. Cell Mol Neurobiol. 2021;41:1131-1143. doi: 10.1007/s10571-020-01034-7.
                  31. Smith KE, Boyer EW, Grundman O, McCurdy CR, Sharma A. The rise of novel, semi-synthetic 7-hydroxymitragnine products. Addiction. 2025;2:387-8. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.16728
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